Introduction
There is much controversy concerning the ending of Mark’s Gospel, a continuous Debate about the originality of its ending. There are three different endings to the Gospel of Mark. The first ending adds one shot verse after 16:8 and is thought by many scholars to be the most unlikely ending to Mark. The second ending, which is the longest ending. Many feel that it may have been added later. The third ending, which is in most of our bibles today, is the most controversial because of its abrupt ending. In spite of the debate, the third ending is the most likely because of A B C
“These different endings are added in some bibles. The shortest ending, which is the first one mentioned has no references. The second one is referred to as Mark 16. 9-20”. (p.225) As well as the main ending, that is printed in every bible, and is considered to most scholars, the original ending of Mark. The other two endings are usually added in the footnotes of the bible. Although there is great debate as to whether the first second, or original ending is the real ending of mark, the original ending seems the most likely.
First, and shortest ending
There are three different endings to Mark. The first adds another verse after canonical 16:8: “ After this, Jesus himself sent out form east to west, through their work, the sacred and imperishable proclamation of external salvation. Amen.” This ending was seen to many scholars as the least unlikely ending. Scholars agree that Marks shortest ending is quite unlike Mark’s style. It is grandiose and formal...” Many scholars feel this ending is the least likely to be the true ending of mark, not many have focused their attention on this particular ending. Scholars agree that this ending is not the true ending of Mark because it does not have references, and seems to be the least unlikely ending of Mark.
The book of Mark could have ended in this way. This ending ends with the continuous proclamation of the good news, and the purpose of God’s resurrection is fulfilled. Closing Mark in this way leaves the reader with Jesus himself, alive, calling his followers to spread the Gospel. In short, this ending could be the true ending to some, but ultimately according to evidence and scholars support, this added verse would be the lest likely to end Marks Gospel.
Second and longest ending
The second ending typically given as Mark 16:9-20 in most bibles finishes saying that “[t]hey went out and announced the message everywhere. The Lord worked with them, validation their message by the signs that accompanied them”(p.224) Many bibles have this ending added, as well as inform the reader that this ending may not be the true closing to Marks Gospel. Some Scholars suggest that this longer closing was not the original ending, but was added some time later. Some remain unsure about the real ending, whether it was added at a later date, or if it could be considered the true ending of Marks Gospel. Still, Scholars feel that the original ending, which was written in all bibles was the intended ending, and perhaps the long ending, as discussed here “… was not originally part of the forth Gospel but was added by later scribes; the same can be said of the final 12 verses of the Gospel of Mark (Mark 19: 9-20). In many instances, however, the surviving witnesses are so significantly divided that scholars cannot agree concerning the original form of the text.”(p.3) Furthermore, there is a possibility scholars argue, that the longest ending was written as a “second volume”. Perhaps with all the copying, and the continuous spread of the Gospel, the book of Mark grew to have a second volume. “This possibility must be taken seriously. But if this is the case, how did it come to have a rather wide circulation and use in the early church? Someone obviously was the document as suitable for circulation and widespread use. A second possibility is that what we have really is “ the beginning of the Gospel of Jesus” and that the author intended, much like Luke, to offer a second volume to talk about the continuation of the gospel. (P.45)” Many scholars feel that this ending may be considered as a second volume; as a continuation gospel. Other scholars feel that perhaps this ending may be the true ending, or maybe even an ending added on later by scribes.
In my opinion, even though scholars may be unsure themselves whether to believe that this is the ture ending to Marks Gospel or not, readers may feel that this is the true ending. Some may feel strongly that this is indeed the original ending because it, gives examples of Jesus speaking after his is resurrection, and proclaiming the good news. This ending gives the reader a sense of completeness, and clarity of the resurrection of the Christ. But what I truly think is that perhaps the original ending is not the second ending, but rather the longest ending was added on later. The thought that some scholars may have problems deciphering what the true ending of Mark adds confusion to the reader. How can we be certain which ending of Mark is the true ending? Overall I feel that this is ending is not the true ending of Mark. Furthermore, as suggested above, seeing the longer ending as a second volume, allows the first ending to be qualified as the first ending, but also allows the second ending to be effective and have a role in the ending of Mark.
Third, and ending seen in bibles today
The Third ending is the one that is found in most bibles. The first ending ends with three women running away in fear. As stated in the NIV “ Trembling and bewildered, the women went out and fled from the tomb. They said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid”(Mark 16:8). Mary Magdalene, Mary and the mother of James arrived at the tomb; the good news the women received from “heavenly messenger” was not passed on due to their bewilderment. Some scholars feel that the main ending, found in our bibles today cannot possibly be the original ending because of its abrupt ending. This ending of Mark leaves the reader in anticipation. The level of uncertainly caused by the women’s fear, creates a longing for a continuation of the passage. Although there is much controversy, “Many think that Mark intended his Gospel to end with 16:8. If so, the women’s trembling and amazement, dumb-foundness and fear, bring the Gospel to a close on the note of awe, as appropriate to Marks portrayal of Jesus as the Christ, God’s Son.” (Gundry, P.155) Scholars feel that this claim represents the way that Mark truly sees Jesus. Ending in this abrupt way gives insight to Marks true feelings and thoughts. However, Many scholars are confused with the ending of Mark, but suggest that the striking urgency and confusion of the ending is all part of Gods plan.
According to the New Oxford Annotated Bible; as quoted below, Scholars feel that there is a strong pull toward the possibility that the urgent ending of mark was done on purpose to allow readers to search for the continuation of the story in the other Gospels, such as Matthew Luke and John. When we look at the other Gospels, we have the opportunity to search deeper to find out about the resurrection. “Nothing is certainly known either about how this Gospel originally ended or about the origin of vv. 9-20, which cannot have been part of the original text of Mark…. Through it is possible that the compiler (!) of the gospel intended this abrupt ending, one can find hints that he intended to descried events after the resurrection”(p.1238) . Scholars feel that the abrupt ending was done on purpose. Many agree that the abruptness of the ending was done intentionally to create a desire for more. “Mark speaks of a young man who greeted the women at the tomb, Luke of two men, Matthew of an angel, and John of two angles. Mark’s and Matthew’s Jesus appears only in Galilee: Luke’s, only in Jerusalem”(P.137) Although there are differences to some of the details to these other Gospels. Matthew and Luke offer the reader the continuation of the gospel, through other books.
Perhaps Mark ended the book the way he did, so the reader would look to the other Gospels such as Luke, Matthew or John to find out more about the resurrection of the Christ. Maybe Mark felt it was appropriate to leave the reader wanting more. Perhaps Marks goal was to capture the reader’s attention by giving them something, but not enough, thus creating a longing for more. Allowing an opportunity for the seeking heart to dig deeper, to create a desire to go into the details, in order to find the true meaning of Christ’s resurrection. It’s interesting to see that the other Gospels allow the reader to see not only differences of the Gospels, but also the continuation of the Christ’s resurrection. I think that this ending the (original ending) is the true ending. This ending seems to be most likely in Marks style and offers the reader with anticipation and a longing for more.
Conclusion
Although there is much controversy about which ending is true the ending of the gospel, evidence points towards the original ending of the confused and bewildered women running away in fear. Many scholars feel that ending the book of Mark, in this fashion, leaves the reader with a sense of intensity. Also, leaving the reader in this way creates a longing deep within, to search for the continuation of the good news. This ending seems to fit as Marks style as quoted above, and allows the reader to search other places, in order to find the continuation of Christ’s resurrection. Other evidence shares that
“That’s the end. “The earliest Gospel never mentions—at least not in the best ancient manuscripts—the risen Jesus' re- unions with his followers as described in Matthew, Luke and John. Accounts of the appearance of the risen Jesus were added to the end of Mark by later scribal hands. The NRSV labels these as "shorter" and "longer" endings, and relegates to foot- notes a discussion of how these endings were fashioned.” (p.1 Dart)
Although the main ending may seem abrupt, it still holds true to Marks gospel and message. The shorter and longer endings are placed in footnotes in the bible, and are not referred to as the true ending of the Gospel. The original ending is the real ending. We are still able to continue our search on the resurrection, in different gospels. And we are even able to read the other versions if necessary, but the original ending seems the most appropriate to end the Gospel of Mark.
Monday, April 6, 2009
Christian Themes In Secular Film: Vacuous or Valuable?
Once, I attended a church service in which The Matrix was used to deliver a message; these days, it is not uncommon to see scenes from secular films incorporated into a pastor’s sermon on Sunday morning. According to Terry Lindvall and Andrew Quicke, authors of an article entitled “Moving from Film to Digital Movies”, this practice would never have occurred in the mid-1900’s. Since then, however, Christians have become much more accepting of secular media; secular media have also become much more accepting of Christianity. In their article, Lindvall and Quicke discuss how Christians can make an impact in the film industry, yet they gloss over the reality that more and more religious themes are cropping up in popular secular movies every year. Do the religious themes in films such as Star Wars, Harry Potter, and The Matrix have any real value for the Christian community, or are they shallow and empty? While some would argue that the majority of the themes contained in these films lack the depth necessary for them to be truly meaningful, I believe that value can be taken from them because a worthwhile message is a worthwhile message, regardless of where it is found.
Lindvall and Quicke’s article is taken from a book of compilations entitled Understanding Evangelical Media. Throughout the chapter, the two communications professors discuss the merits of Christian values in films. While the secular movie industry is still going strong, Christian-made films themselves have struggled to become hits in the box office (Mel Gibson’s The Passion of The Christ being a notable exception). Jonathan Bock, a film promoter for Grace Hill Media, targets the main problem with Christian films when he “argues that many Christian-themed movies are ‘horribly acted, shot on a shoe-string budget, and you always know how they’re going to end’” (UEM 64). Many Christians, myself included, are not interested in low-quality films, regardless of the value of the messages contained within. This was not always the case though, as up until the past few decades, most churches condemned secular films, going as far as to say “that a real Christian would not want to be caught in a theater when Jesus returned” (UEM 62).
While believers used to preach of the evils of Hollywood, more and more Christians are entering the film industry. Lindvall and Quicke’s article lists Ralph Winter, a producer involved in the X-Men and Fantastic Four film franchises, along with directors Scott Derrickson and Tom Shadyac, “who have integrated Christian themes and issues into their films” which include The Exorcism of Emily Rose and Bruce Almighty, respectively (UEM 67). In responding to the Christian prejudice against films, Herbert A. Jump, a minister of the South Congregational Church, states that films of value to Christian audiences are ones that portray truth in this way:
[With] a dramatic story, of contemporary experience, exciting in character and thus interesting even to the morally sluggish, picturing negative elements such as crime, accident, ignorance, sin, and thus commending itself as true to life, but in the end showing the defeat and expulsion of these negative elements by positive qualities, virtuous souls, God-like traits.” (218)
Jump supports the idea that Christians can learn from exciting, well-made films, that integrate qualities that are important to Christians, and I would agree. I would also say, however, that while there is a place for Christian-based entertainment, it does little to help anyone other than those who already belong to the Christian tribe; by infusing Christian qualities into secular media like movies, filmmakers can help truly expand the kingdom of God. Many examples of this type of filmmaking, both new and old, can already be found in film series like The Lord of the Rings and the Chronicles of Narnia. The difference between these films and others is that they are based on popular series of books written by Christian authors. In the next section, I will take a look at Christian themes that have appeared in completely secular productions: namely, the Star Wars saga, the Harry Potter series, and The Matrix trilogy.
1977 was a year that changed the face of Hollywood forever. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, the first of what would end up being a six film series, was released in May of that year and since then the series has found its way into the hearts and minds of millions of people of all ages. The story, like many others, plays off the basic theme of good vs. evil; a theme that many see as integral to the Christian faith. Other religious ideas beyond that, however, can be found, the most prominent being the concept of the Force: “a supernatural entity [...] which rules the universe and motivates the actors” (Henning 203). When asked his reasoning for including the Force in the popular film saga, George Lucas, the series’ creator, responded by saying that he “put the Force into the movie in order to try to awaken a certain kind of spirituality in young people--[...] a belief in God” (TIME). Lucas’ purpose when introducing The Force, however, was not simply to imply that God exists, but to get viewers to ask questions: “It’s to say, ‘Think about this for a second. Is there a God? What does God look like? What does God sound like? What does God feel like? How do we relate to God?’ Just getting young people to think at that level is what I’ve been trying to do in the films.” (TIME). I think that inspiring people to ask those questions, Christian or not, can only be a good thing. From here, I’ll take a look at a phenomenon that inspired a different generation.
J.K. Rowling released Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone in the UK in 1997. Soon after, her children’s series featuring a fully-realized magical world, along with a school full of young witches and wizards, took the world by storm, spawning a highly successful film series. The Harry Potter series has often been chastised by the Christian community for promoting witchcraft, but that close-minded view completely ignores the many valuable elements that can be found in the story. Emily Griesinger of Azusa Pacific University argues that the magic in Harry Potter is often “used to ‘lift the heart,’ as Tolkien says” (475). One example of this can be found in the mercy Harry shows Peter Pettigrew at the end of the third film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Pettigrew, the man who killed Harry’s parents, will eventually be responsible for the second rise of Lord Voldemort. Knowing this eventual outcome, Harry still makes the choice to save Peter’s life because “[i]n Christian terms, Harry has chosen mercy over judgement, the impenetrable magic of grace” (Griesinger 473). Harry exhibits other Christ-like qualities when he befriends the broken and the downtrodden—the outcasts of society. He cares more for what lies inside a person than what can be seen on the outside (Johnston 7). Kristin Kay Johnston, of the Journal of Religion and Society, also discusses the idea of self-sacrifice that flows throughout the entire series. From the first scene of the first film, to what will end up being the last scene of the final film, Harry and his loved ones can be seen sacrificing themselves for what is just and righteous. Johnston argues that “Harry Potter [...] [offers] an easily understandable image of love that risks itself for the salvation of another, [...] perhaps from there, [people] can more deeply grasp the Christian understanding of God’s love” (8). There are many more examples of Christian value that can be found in the series, but it is time to take a look at a film series with more obvious relations to Christianity.
The Wachowski Brothers film, The Matrix, gained an almost immediate cult following upon its release in 1999. The film follows the trend of “a large number of films rleased in the last few years in its dealing with overtly religious themes in a secular ‘wrapper’” (Ellis 304). Out of all the examples I’ve listed, The Matrix is the most complex, as it is littered with references and allusions to many different religions, Christianity included. That being said, out of all of my examples, The Matrix probably has the most clear and the most profound example of religion in film: that of the Christ figure. Jeremy Punt, the writer of an article for the Journal of Theology for South Africa, expresses his view that “[o]f all the biblical themes emerging in the movie, the messianic role of the lead actor, Neo, is the strongest.” (92) The film even goes as far as to use the line, “Hallelujah, you’re my saviour man, my own personal Jesus Christ” (qtd. In Punt 96). Throughout the films, Neo is seen as a saviour of the human race—the one who was prophesied to arrive and help end the tyranny of the machines. This allusion is further solidified when Neo “dies” at the end of the movie, only to be resurrected—this scene is then followed by another in which Neo “ascends” after learning how to bend the rules of reality, allowing him to fly. Dr. Robert Ellis, a Reverend from Bristol Baptist College, explains that “[t]he Matrix offers a striking Christ-figure, and reminds us again that science fiction is a particularly useful genre for exploring such issues” (Ellis 307).
Regardless of intent, I believe that value can be found from any positive messages embedded in secular film. As demonstrated by the examples found in films like Star Wars, Harry Potter, and The Matrix, popular secular films can be powerful tools in communicating Christian values and themes, and anything capable of that is a good thing.
Lindvall and Quicke’s article is taken from a book of compilations entitled Understanding Evangelical Media. Throughout the chapter, the two communications professors discuss the merits of Christian values in films. While the secular movie industry is still going strong, Christian-made films themselves have struggled to become hits in the box office (Mel Gibson’s The Passion of The Christ being a notable exception). Jonathan Bock, a film promoter for Grace Hill Media, targets the main problem with Christian films when he “argues that many Christian-themed movies are ‘horribly acted, shot on a shoe-string budget, and you always know how they’re going to end’” (UEM 64). Many Christians, myself included, are not interested in low-quality films, regardless of the value of the messages contained within. This was not always the case though, as up until the past few decades, most churches condemned secular films, going as far as to say “that a real Christian would not want to be caught in a theater when Jesus returned” (UEM 62).
While believers used to preach of the evils of Hollywood, more and more Christians are entering the film industry. Lindvall and Quicke’s article lists Ralph Winter, a producer involved in the X-Men and Fantastic Four film franchises, along with directors Scott Derrickson and Tom Shadyac, “who have integrated Christian themes and issues into their films” which include The Exorcism of Emily Rose and Bruce Almighty, respectively (UEM 67). In responding to the Christian prejudice against films, Herbert A. Jump, a minister of the South Congregational Church, states that films of value to Christian audiences are ones that portray truth in this way:
[With] a dramatic story, of contemporary experience, exciting in character and thus interesting even to the morally sluggish, picturing negative elements such as crime, accident, ignorance, sin, and thus commending itself as true to life, but in the end showing the defeat and expulsion of these negative elements by positive qualities, virtuous souls, God-like traits.” (218)
Jump supports the idea that Christians can learn from exciting, well-made films, that integrate qualities that are important to Christians, and I would agree. I would also say, however, that while there is a place for Christian-based entertainment, it does little to help anyone other than those who already belong to the Christian tribe; by infusing Christian qualities into secular media like movies, filmmakers can help truly expand the kingdom of God. Many examples of this type of filmmaking, both new and old, can already be found in film series like The Lord of the Rings and the Chronicles of Narnia. The difference between these films and others is that they are based on popular series of books written by Christian authors. In the next section, I will take a look at Christian themes that have appeared in completely secular productions: namely, the Star Wars saga, the Harry Potter series, and The Matrix trilogy.
1977 was a year that changed the face of Hollywood forever. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, the first of what would end up being a six film series, was released in May of that year and since then the series has found its way into the hearts and minds of millions of people of all ages. The story, like many others, plays off the basic theme of good vs. evil; a theme that many see as integral to the Christian faith. Other religious ideas beyond that, however, can be found, the most prominent being the concept of the Force: “a supernatural entity [...] which rules the universe and motivates the actors” (Henning 203). When asked his reasoning for including the Force in the popular film saga, George Lucas, the series’ creator, responded by saying that he “put the Force into the movie in order to try to awaken a certain kind of spirituality in young people--[...] a belief in God” (TIME). Lucas’ purpose when introducing The Force, however, was not simply to imply that God exists, but to get viewers to ask questions: “It’s to say, ‘Think about this for a second. Is there a God? What does God look like? What does God sound like? What does God feel like? How do we relate to God?’ Just getting young people to think at that level is what I’ve been trying to do in the films.” (TIME). I think that inspiring people to ask those questions, Christian or not, can only be a good thing. From here, I’ll take a look at a phenomenon that inspired a different generation.
J.K. Rowling released Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone in the UK in 1997. Soon after, her children’s series featuring a fully-realized magical world, along with a school full of young witches and wizards, took the world by storm, spawning a highly successful film series. The Harry Potter series has often been chastised by the Christian community for promoting witchcraft, but that close-minded view completely ignores the many valuable elements that can be found in the story. Emily Griesinger of Azusa Pacific University argues that the magic in Harry Potter is often “used to ‘lift the heart,’ as Tolkien says” (475). One example of this can be found in the mercy Harry shows Peter Pettigrew at the end of the third film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Pettigrew, the man who killed Harry’s parents, will eventually be responsible for the second rise of Lord Voldemort. Knowing this eventual outcome, Harry still makes the choice to save Peter’s life because “[i]n Christian terms, Harry has chosen mercy over judgement, the impenetrable magic of grace” (Griesinger 473). Harry exhibits other Christ-like qualities when he befriends the broken and the downtrodden—the outcasts of society. He cares more for what lies inside a person than what can be seen on the outside (Johnston 7). Kristin Kay Johnston, of the Journal of Religion and Society, also discusses the idea of self-sacrifice that flows throughout the entire series. From the first scene of the first film, to what will end up being the last scene of the final film, Harry and his loved ones can be seen sacrificing themselves for what is just and righteous. Johnston argues that “Harry Potter [...] [offers] an easily understandable image of love that risks itself for the salvation of another, [...] perhaps from there, [people] can more deeply grasp the Christian understanding of God’s love” (8). There are many more examples of Christian value that can be found in the series, but it is time to take a look at a film series with more obvious relations to Christianity.
The Wachowski Brothers film, The Matrix, gained an almost immediate cult following upon its release in 1999. The film follows the trend of “a large number of films rleased in the last few years in its dealing with overtly religious themes in a secular ‘wrapper’” (Ellis 304). Out of all the examples I’ve listed, The Matrix is the most complex, as it is littered with references and allusions to many different religions, Christianity included. That being said, out of all of my examples, The Matrix probably has the most clear and the most profound example of religion in film: that of the Christ figure. Jeremy Punt, the writer of an article for the Journal of Theology for South Africa, expresses his view that “[o]f all the biblical themes emerging in the movie, the messianic role of the lead actor, Neo, is the strongest.” (92) The film even goes as far as to use the line, “Hallelujah, you’re my saviour man, my own personal Jesus Christ” (qtd. In Punt 96). Throughout the films, Neo is seen as a saviour of the human race—the one who was prophesied to arrive and help end the tyranny of the machines. This allusion is further solidified when Neo “dies” at the end of the movie, only to be resurrected—this scene is then followed by another in which Neo “ascends” after learning how to bend the rules of reality, allowing him to fly. Dr. Robert Ellis, a Reverend from Bristol Baptist College, explains that “[t]he Matrix offers a striking Christ-figure, and reminds us again that science fiction is a particularly useful genre for exploring such issues” (Ellis 307).
Regardless of intent, I believe that value can be found from any positive messages embedded in secular film. As demonstrated by the examples found in films like Star Wars, Harry Potter, and The Matrix, popular secular films can be powerful tools in communicating Christian values and themes, and anything capable of that is a good thing.
Saturday, April 4, 2009
draft revised
Workplace: A Predictor of Life Happiness
Mary and Theresa are both distinguished reporters who work in the same work environment and have similar responsibilities. While Mary loves writing articles and feeling fulfilled with her work, Theresa suffers from the stress of deadlines and longing for retirement. Because they receive happiness at work differently, Mary and Theresa have very different views of their life satisfaction. From a psychological perspective, despite the fact that people receive happiness at work differently, happy workers share common determinates such as following interests and having a positive attitude toward challenges. Though work environment might affect happiness temporarily, people’s internal choices create ultimate happiness in both smooth and rough times.
Most people agree that, in general, certain personalities tend to experience happiness more than others. But rather than depending on innate characteristics and abilities, happiness should be an enduring feeling that can be maintained regardless of our situation. By interviewing different happy people around the world, Foster and Hick, in their book How We Choose To Be Happy argue that we could gain happiness through people’s internal choices (9). Rather than letting external factors decide whether a person will be happy or not, happiness can be something that people can take control of.
People who try to gain happiness by changing their environment, such as the workplace, later find happiness to be transient. Due to changeable conditions in the workplace, it could only create happiness on a temporary basis. Without the intention to be happy, happiness will easily wither once these positive conditions change. Therefore, the workplace is only a single factor in happiness, which always dependent on internal choices.
While organizations try hard to improve their work conditions in order to appeal to employees, there is no single job that could provide happiness to everyone. Each person has his or her own standard of fulfillment and happiness (Scott). Since everyone has a different personality and different expectations for their career, each individual must find his or her own way to receive happiness at work. One might feel happiness at work because it provides a high income; others might feel satisfied at work for the status. Some people may find responsibility as stress while others see responsibility as a form of self-achievement (Cranny, Smith and Stone 150). Depending on the priorities, satisfaction might be found in different ways for different individuals. With dissimilar expectations, Mary and Theresa, for instance, feel extremely different under the same conditions. Although individual differences make people receive happiness differently, happy workers share several characteristics.
The secret that makes people like Mary feel fulfilled at work is following their passion. Each person has his or her own interests that excite and motivate them. Despite different approaches to work, working with passion makes the job itself enjoyable and therefore results in happiness. In Henderson’s research, the majority of the interviewees who receive happiness at work have followed their interests and enjoy what they are doing (Henderson 305). Despite each interviewer’s different preferences and focuses, following their interests has enabled them to fully engage in their work. By enjoying their jobs, workers are more likely to have a positive attitude when facing unexpected changes. Consider Lena, a teacher who was diagnosed with a rare bone disease. With the passion she had for her work, Lena did not complain about her physical illness and decided to continue teaching. “The pain is a reality that I have to deal with during every waking hour. It can be horrible. But I know that it would be worse if I give up what I love and spend all my time nursing myself” (Foster and Hicks 102). A passionate worker like Lena does not give up happiness during rough times, but instead finds happiness in the job she loves.
People are yearning for stable and secure environments and yet always fail to find it in reality (Foster and Hicks 98). Life is full of challenges and changes, and having a career is no exception. Even passionate workers face difficulties. But unlike people who work for money or other external reasons, passionate workers acknowledge the problems and have a positive attitude when challenges come. After researching and interviewing several happy workers, Henderson asserts, “What is most illustrative is the participants’ refusal to remain unhappy” (8). Their reaction towards challenges makes the difference. Happy workers understand well that no matter how well they plan, unexpected changes occur in every career.
Because unpredictable changes always happen, external factors would not be able to maintain happiness. Several studies from different scholars have shown that people with positive attitudes are more likely to cope well with changes (Judge, Erez and Bono 167). The common attributes among happy workers are that they accept the unstable reality and do what they can to make their situation better. One Chinese proverb says, “If the mountain would not move, build a road around it; if the road would not turn, change your path.” In times when we cannot change reality, we can still change our minds. Happiness comes from inside and lasts in both smooth and rough times. Consider Sally, a woman who faced a layoff crisis in her mid-fifties. Instead of letting fear take over her life, she decided to view this crisis as an opportunity of new exploration. By having a positive attitude, Sally enjoyed in her exploration and it improved her performance during this tough time. Sally eventually survived the layoff and got a better position in her organization (Foster and Hicks 116). Her intention to be happy enables her to stay positive during this crisis and remain happiness regardlessly.
When trying to define the best workplace, we often tend to focus on external circumstances. “Fat salary, less responsibility, and no commute” is an old Chinese saying that describes most people’s ideal workplace. But does high salary really bring job satisfaction? Many people do not feel happy at work due to false expectations of what money can bring. Living in a consumer-oriented world, the media proclaim that the more people buy, the happier they will be. Misled by media’s false impressions, people start to work overtime or work in a job they do not enjoy in order to have a higher income and to maintain an idealized lifestyle. Antonides shows a different point of view concerning this common thought about how financial situations will affect people’s happiness. He argues that “happiness in a wider sense was not significantly affected by the level of income.” Even when one’s income declines, happiness is not likely to follow the decline (Antonides 467-484). It is clear that increasing one’s income cannot buy happiness.
Not only will it not bring happiness, but trying to increase income creates a busy lifestyle, drawing people further from happiness. Created by the want of financial securities, a busy lifestyle becomes a happiness killer. Barbara and Paul lived the Hollywood life where money was never an issue, and yet they were not happy. In order to maintain their lifestyle, Paul was always working and under tremendous pressure. By deciding to give up such luxurious lives and follow their dreams, Barbara and Paul finally received happiness. Barbara said, “I’ll never be sucked back into that world again. I’m going to do the things that make me happy; and I’m going to turn down offers that won’t make me happy” (Foster and Hicks 95). Having the right notion of pursuing happiness is crucial. More and more people like Barbara have abandoned the idea of pursuing money only and draw more attention to their internal needs. A report from The Boston Globe points out, “In the past five years, 48 percent of Americans have voluntarily opted to make less money so they could have more time and a less stressful life” (Gerencher). The earlier we realize happiness come from inside of us, the earlier we can break away from the false hope of money.
While we discuss the significance of how inward attitudes affect our perception of happiness at work, some environmental conditions may make people perceive happiness more easily. According to a Canadian Business report, the best workplace gives employees a sense of trust. With trusting relationships between managers and workers, employees in return would spontaneously give full commitment to their job (Wahl). In other words, people feel fulfilled by receiving trust from others, and the happiness they receive motivates them to perform well. Working under certain conditions may create positive affects on workers’ happiness and performance. In his research, Cranny suggests that rewards, high job involvement, and clear, challenging goals create both job satisfaction and high performance (214). In other words, some conditions help people receive happiness more easily than others. On the other hand, no studies indicate that positive conditions maintain happiness in the long run.
Despite the clear connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction, it is, however, not decisive. Because environmental conditions are highly capricious, once the conditions change, the positive connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction break. Bruno and Alois in their book Happiness and Economics argue that insecurity occurs during economic crisis and creates unhappiness among workers (37). People whose happiness depend on their income may suffer greatly during times of economic downturn. Bewley suggests that pay cuts create dissatisfaction at work and negatively affect people’s well-being (Bewley 35). It is clear that relying on environmental conditions for happiness at work can be dangerous. Rather than intending to be happy, people become passive and let environmental factors determine their happiness. As we are looking for enduring determinants which enable us to feel happy, environmental conditions alone are not enough.
Because people spend most of their time working, satisfaction at work greatly affects overall happiness. Receiving happiness at work would also mean receiving happiness in most of our daily lives. Because our careers have occupy a large part of our lifetime, job satisfaction is therefore a good predictor for life satisfaction (Bryner). In recent years, scholars from different fields have gradually agreed that the relationship between the two is too complex to explain (Rode 40). One thing we can be sure of is that the most crucial element for happiness comes from internal factors rather than work conditions.
Mary faces challenges and difficulties in her career life just like everyone else. One thing that allows her to remain happy is her choice to be positive and to find joy in the job she loves. Regardless of the wide rage of working conditions and numerous changes happening throughout career life, people’s internal choice could make happiness present in both wonderful and tragic moments in life.
Mary and Theresa are both distinguished reporters who work in the same work environment and have similar responsibilities. While Mary loves writing articles and feeling fulfilled with her work, Theresa suffers from the stress of deadlines and longing for retirement. Because they receive happiness at work differently, Mary and Theresa have very different views of their life satisfaction. From a psychological perspective, despite the fact that people receive happiness at work differently, happy workers share common determinates such as following interests and having a positive attitude toward challenges. Though work environment might affect happiness temporarily, people’s internal choices create ultimate happiness in both smooth and rough times.
Most people agree that, in general, certain personalities tend to experience happiness more than others. But rather than depending on innate characteristics and abilities, happiness should be an enduring feeling that can be maintained regardless of our situation. By interviewing different happy people around the world, Foster and Hick, in their book How We Choose To Be Happy argue that we could gain happiness through people’s internal choices (9). Rather than letting external factors decide whether a person will be happy or not, happiness can be something that people can take control of.
People who try to gain happiness by changing their environment, such as the workplace, later find happiness to be transient. Due to changeable conditions in the workplace, it could only create happiness on a temporary basis. Without the intention to be happy, happiness will easily wither once these positive conditions change. Therefore, the workplace is only a single factor in happiness, which always dependent on internal choices.
While organizations try hard to improve their work conditions in order to appeal to employees, there is no single job that could provide happiness to everyone. Each person has his or her own standard of fulfillment and happiness (Scott). Since everyone has a different personality and different expectations for their career, each individual must find his or her own way to receive happiness at work. One might feel happiness at work because it provides a high income; others might feel satisfied at work for the status. Some people may find responsibility as stress while others see responsibility as a form of self-achievement (Cranny, Smith and Stone 150). Depending on the priorities, satisfaction might be found in different ways for different individuals. With dissimilar expectations, Mary and Theresa, for instance, feel extremely different under the same conditions. Although individual differences make people receive happiness differently, happy workers share several characteristics.
The secret that makes people like Mary feel fulfilled at work is following their passion. Each person has his or her own interests that excite and motivate them. Despite different approaches to work, working with passion makes the job itself enjoyable and therefore results in happiness. In Henderson’s research, the majority of the interviewees who receive happiness at work have followed their interests and enjoy what they are doing (Henderson 305). Despite each interviewer’s different preferences and focuses, following their interests has enabled them to fully engage in their work. By enjoying their jobs, workers are more likely to have a positive attitude when facing unexpected changes. Consider Lena, a teacher who was diagnosed with a rare bone disease. With the passion she had for her work, Lena did not complain about her physical illness and decided to continue teaching. “The pain is a reality that I have to deal with during every waking hour. It can be horrible. But I know that it would be worse if I give up what I love and spend all my time nursing myself” (Foster and Hicks 102). A passionate worker like Lena does not give up happiness during rough times, but instead finds happiness in the job she loves.
People are yearning for stable and secure environments and yet always fail to find it in reality (Foster and Hicks 98). Life is full of challenges and changes, and having a career is no exception. Even passionate workers face difficulties. But unlike people who work for money or other external reasons, passionate workers acknowledge the problems and have a positive attitude when challenges come. After researching and interviewing several happy workers, Henderson asserts, “What is most illustrative is the participants’ refusal to remain unhappy” (8). Their reaction towards challenges makes the difference. Happy workers understand well that no matter how well they plan, unexpected changes occur in every career.
Because unpredictable changes always happen, external factors would not be able to maintain happiness. Several studies from different scholars have shown that people with positive attitudes are more likely to cope well with changes (Judge, Erez and Bono 167). The common attributes among happy workers are that they accept the unstable reality and do what they can to make their situation better. One Chinese proverb says, “If the mountain would not move, build a road around it; if the road would not turn, change your path.” In times when we cannot change reality, we can still change our minds. Happiness comes from inside and lasts in both smooth and rough times. Consider Sally, a woman who faced a layoff crisis in her mid-fifties. Instead of letting fear take over her life, she decided to view this crisis as an opportunity of new exploration. By having a positive attitude, Sally enjoyed in her exploration and it improved her performance during this tough time. Sally eventually survived the layoff and got a better position in her organization (Foster and Hicks 116). Her intention to be happy enables her to stay positive during this crisis and remain happiness regardlessly.
When trying to define the best workplace, we often tend to focus on external circumstances. “Fat salary, less responsibility, and no commute” is an old Chinese saying that describes most people’s ideal workplace. But does high salary really bring job satisfaction? Many people do not feel happy at work due to false expectations of what money can bring. Living in a consumer-oriented world, the media proclaim that the more people buy, the happier they will be. Misled by media’s false impressions, people start to work overtime or work in a job they do not enjoy in order to have a higher income and to maintain an idealized lifestyle. Antonides shows a different point of view concerning this common thought about how financial situations will affect people’s happiness. He argues that “happiness in a wider sense was not significantly affected by the level of income.” Even when one’s income declines, happiness is not likely to follow the decline (Antonides 467-484). It is clear that increasing one’s income cannot buy happiness.
Not only will it not bring happiness, but trying to increase income creates a busy lifestyle, drawing people further from happiness. Created by the want of financial securities, a busy lifestyle becomes a happiness killer. Barbara and Paul lived the Hollywood life where money was never an issue, and yet they were not happy. In order to maintain their lifestyle, Paul was always working and under tremendous pressure. By deciding to give up such luxurious lives and follow their dreams, Barbara and Paul finally received happiness. Barbara said, “I’ll never be sucked back into that world again. I’m going to do the things that make me happy; and I’m going to turn down offers that won’t make me happy” (Foster and Hicks 95). Having the right notion of pursuing happiness is crucial. More and more people like Barbara have abandoned the idea of pursuing money only and draw more attention to their internal needs. A report from The Boston Globe points out, “In the past five years, 48 percent of Americans have voluntarily opted to make less money so they could have more time and a less stressful life” (Gerencher). The earlier we realize happiness come from inside of us, the earlier we can break away from the false hope of money.
While we discuss the significance of how inward attitudes affect our perception of happiness at work, some environmental conditions may make people perceive happiness more easily. According to a Canadian Business report, the best workplace gives employees a sense of trust. With trusting relationships between managers and workers, employees in return would spontaneously give full commitment to their job (Wahl). In other words, people feel fulfilled by receiving trust from others, and the happiness they receive motivates them to perform well. Working under certain conditions may create positive affects on workers’ happiness and performance. In his research, Cranny suggests that rewards, high job involvement, and clear, challenging goals create both job satisfaction and high performance (214). In other words, some conditions help people receive happiness more easily than others. On the other hand, no studies indicate that positive conditions maintain happiness in the long run.
Despite the clear connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction, it is, however, not decisive. Because environmental conditions are highly capricious, once the conditions change, the positive connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction break. Bruno and Alois in their book Happiness and Economics argue that insecurity occurs during economic crisis and creates unhappiness among workers (37). People whose happiness depend on their income may suffer greatly during times of economic downturn. Bewley suggests that pay cuts create dissatisfaction at work and negatively affect people’s well-being (Bewley 35). It is clear that relying on environmental conditions for happiness at work can be dangerous. Rather than intending to be happy, people become passive and let environmental factors determine their happiness. As we are looking for enduring determinants which enable us to feel happy, environmental conditions alone are not enough.
Because people spend most of their time working, satisfaction at work greatly affects overall happiness. Receiving happiness at work would also mean receiving happiness in most of our daily lives. Because our careers have occupy a large part of our lifetime, job satisfaction is therefore a good predictor for life satisfaction (Bryner). In recent years, scholars from different fields have gradually agreed that the relationship between the two is too complex to explain (Rode 40). One thing we can be sure of is that the most crucial element for happiness comes from internal factors rather than work conditions.
Mary faces challenges and difficulties in her career life just like everyone else. One thing that allows her to remain happy is her choice to be positive and to find joy in the job she loves. Regardless of the wide rage of working conditions and numerous changes happening throughout career life, people’s internal choice could make happiness present in both wonderful and tragic moments in life.
First draft
First draft
The problem with Greek democracy as Norman Cantor notes is, “How was the free community to alter its established laws”(Cantor, Norman, 1967)? For chaos would erupt if each assembly was allowed to change the law each month. The Greek was confronted with the problem whose laws would be king(Cantor, Norman, 1967)? This is a problem that is never fully overcome by the Greeks. Throughout the experiment the fickleness of the mob constantly causes problem. One minute you may be a great hero while the next you could be booted out of the city
The idea of democracy is directly connected with the Polis or what we know today as the city. The polis is the embodiment of the this idea of democracy(Jacques Le Goff, 10). Aristotle echoed the Greek belief when he said, “man was Made for life in the Polis(Anthony Pagden, 40) The city gained a new attraction through democracy. Greek citizens are no longer loyal to one particular man but rather to Athens as a city. All the Greeks start to gather around the city as a place of learning and trade. Furthermore if a citizen wants a say in how his government and how his country is run he must be near the city. This influence of the city merely expands and grows throughout western civilization as the polis or city becomes the center of society.
A consequence of this sudden political freedom is the growth of the study of philosophy. One but has to go to any of major university to hear names like Plato or Aristotle regularly cited both negatively and positively. Whiteman goes so far as to say all western though is a footnote to western thought(M.I, Finley’ 65 ). Great thinkers like these although often scorned and ignored at the time have with their ideas shaped western thought. Yet it is not so much the specific ideas that shaped Europe, but rather this idea that the world has predictable patterns that we can discover through reason and science(Anthony, Pagden, 2002). European technology and philosophy is based on the fact that there are certain things we can know for sure. Life is not a guessing game instead it is orderly and predictable and can be controlled by and used by man to create beautiful things.
The social consequences of this kind a government are also huge for society. For the first time there is social mobility in culture. For in a tyranny if you are a poor peasant you are in all likely hood going to be that for the rest of your life. Only aristocrat with good ancestry can ever attain to rule or gain power in a society. However, in a democracy every male Athenian has the chance to change policy and express his own idea. Of course if you are a slave or a women there is no chance of this. The Greeks are the first people to create a society based on equality(Cite). Society is no longer based how rich you are or who your family, but rather Instead the ability to convince other people of your opinions is the thing that creates power. It is during this time the art of rhetoric comes into being. Greece, during its height is full of great orators who convince the people through the speeches to follow them. These great orator are the fathers of the great speech makers who have shaped western thought.
The military consequences of this political system are crucial. Before Greece fighting was done mainly by aristocrats. In books like the Iliad, the rich aristocrats of the city are the only people who can afford to fight and duke it out with other rich people. The poor were not involved in the battles at all. Athens and her democratic ways changed this with what it is known as the Hoplite revolution. No longer are the rich the only people allowed to fight. Rather every land owning citizen is expected to go out and fight for his country regardless of his wealth or status. Wars were no longer something that the rich can indulge themselves in when they felt like it. Rather war became far more practical, every man of the city went out and fought so he could return to his city as soon as possible. This opened a whole new way of fighting for western culture.
Greece primarily influenced western cultures by its original concepts rather then practical ideas. For example no western nation today actually use democracy in its true form today. One can only imagine the chaos that would erupt if Canada randomly chose three hundred people out of Canada to rule each month. Its not practical or even wise way of ruling. Likewise western thought has proved many of the Greeks scientific theories wrong, and gone away from much of the actual ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Lastly we do not use the Greek conscription as way of modern warfare unless in a time of emergency. For in order to have a truly effective army the army needs to train and live together. Thus, while the Greeks did give us the original concepts the west needed an empire who could take these concepts and make them practical so that they could best benefit western civilization. The Romans through practicality and efficiently took the Greek concepts and put them into usable system that proved to be the foundation of western thought and Europe.
Polybius, a Roman, argued that there are three different types of government. There is the rule of one called a monarchy, the rule of a few called oligarchy, or The rule of the people known as democracy. Polybius saw weaknesses in each one. On the one hand monarchy can be used to perpetrate great crimes against the people. Oligarchy tends to favour the rich few aristocrats who easily abuse their power over the poor common people. While democracy as was seen in Greece can often turn into mob rule and leaving the country in constant turmoil. Polybius argued that the best system was a combination of these three types of governments.
The Republic of Rome was an attempt to create this mixture. While the Romans retained the Greek’s basic concept of the rule of law, they modified it to make a more balanced system. The Romans elected two consuls every year; these two men ruled and had the ultimate responsibility for Rome. The Senate represented the rich aristocrats who helped rule and advised the consul in matters of policy. Last of all the there was a tribune who represented the common people in advising the consuls. This type of government has become one of the most used governing systems in western Europe, for while representation was provided it still provided a sense of leadership and stability for the city.
This kind of republic relies on the city or polis as the center of the empire. The Romans were heirs to the Greek idea of the Polis(Anthony Pagden, 41). They took the Greek idea of polis and spread it over the known world. For unlike the Greeks Rome was not self sufficient but rather relied on the wider areas of Europe and Asia. The Romans not only conquered people but also took those people and Romanised them. James Wilson put it well when he said that , “It was not that Rome extended herself over the globe but that the inhabitants of the world poured themselves on the Romans”(Anthony Pagden, 41).
While the Greeks pictured a equal society, it was not the kind of equal society we picture today. Unless you were a Greek there was not possibility of you having any civil rights(M. I. Finley 73). This severely limited the extant there culture could spread. The Romans took this idea of equal society and went beyond race. Citizenship was no longer base on race alone but also on loyalty towards Rome. Rome wanted to a single society ruled by one law(Anthony Pagdan, 42). Rome through took the Barbarians tribal systems and changed it into an Italian style municipality(Christopher Dawson, 30).
This was transformation of the city not only based on ideas. It is a calculated and organized switch based on practicality and ingenuity. The Roman engineers divided the city into the forum area where all the political buildings were built, the Markets where goods could be brought in and sold, and the residential section of the city where the people lived. Many roman cities had running water and sewer systems. The Romans designed aqueducts that would bring water from the mountains to the city. These practical addition to the polis allow Greek thought to travel all the way from Gaul to the Middle East in many different climates. This simple module could be duplicated as many times as needed.
The Romans further built roads all over Europe connecting previously isolated settlements. The Romans were the first to use cement to create structure faster and better then any previous generation. Out of the this new technology came great structures such as the coliseum, many temples, and impressive new public buildings many of which still stand to some degree today. This essentially connected Europe and furthered the urbanization Process. For of all these new public buildings provided new reasons to go to the city. These structures also proved to be prototypes for the many basilicas that were built throughout the Middle Ages.
The Romans took the abstract philosophy and turned into a practical guide that Romans could live buy. The Romans practised duty and honour. In the history of Livy we see example after example of men who practice honour. The most memorable being when the Roman commander Camillus had the chance to defeat the enemy when a treacherous school teacher offered to turn over the richest kids in the city to him. Instead of taking advantage of the treacherous school teacher he sends the children home, telling his men that Rome must face her foes with honour(cite). Rome is not just another ruthlessly conquer ring her enemies like the Persians or Alexander, rather they at all times try to act with honour even to the people they defeat. The Roman‘s system of duty and honour is something that has been taught throughout western history as model fro both warfare and daily life.
This is directly connected with the military heritage the Romans gave Europe. While Greece came up with the concept of every citizen fighting for his city the Romans improved on this. For in reality it not very practical for farmer and merchant to have to continually pick up there swords and go fight. For if every Citizen has to fight, trade and commerce would continually come to a stand still. Not only this but the soldiers who went to fight would not get paid for his service. To solve this problem Marius a Roman tribune created the professional solider(cite). This meant that men could spend all their time training for war while the every citizen could attend to his daily work. This was model that was used throughout western warfare to great effect.
It is often said that when Rome Conquered Greece, Greece was the one who conquered actually won(Christopher Dawson, 30). While this has some truth it is important to realize that Rome was no less needed then Greece. Each civilization needed each other in order to become the great and influential civilization.
The problem with Greek democracy as Norman Cantor notes is, “How was the free community to alter its established laws”(Cantor, Norman, 1967)? For chaos would erupt if each assembly was allowed to change the law each month. The Greek was confronted with the problem whose laws would be king(Cantor, Norman, 1967)? This is a problem that is never fully overcome by the Greeks. Throughout the experiment the fickleness of the mob constantly causes problem. One minute you may be a great hero while the next you could be booted out of the city
The idea of democracy is directly connected with the Polis or what we know today as the city. The polis is the embodiment of the this idea of democracy(Jacques Le Goff, 10). Aristotle echoed the Greek belief when he said, “man was Made for life in the Polis(Anthony Pagden, 40) The city gained a new attraction through democracy. Greek citizens are no longer loyal to one particular man but rather to Athens as a city. All the Greeks start to gather around the city as a place of learning and trade. Furthermore if a citizen wants a say in how his government and how his country is run he must be near the city. This influence of the city merely expands and grows throughout western civilization as the polis or city becomes the center of society.
A consequence of this sudden political freedom is the growth of the study of philosophy. One but has to go to any of major university to hear names like Plato or Aristotle regularly cited both negatively and positively. Whiteman goes so far as to say all western though is a footnote to western thought(M.I, Finley’ 65 ). Great thinkers like these although often scorned and ignored at the time have with their ideas shaped western thought. Yet it is not so much the specific ideas that shaped Europe, but rather this idea that the world has predictable patterns that we can discover through reason and science(Anthony, Pagden, 2002). European technology and philosophy is based on the fact that there are certain things we can know for sure. Life is not a guessing game instead it is orderly and predictable and can be controlled by and used by man to create beautiful things.
The social consequences of this kind a government are also huge for society. For the first time there is social mobility in culture. For in a tyranny if you are a poor peasant you are in all likely hood going to be that for the rest of your life. Only aristocrat with good ancestry can ever attain to rule or gain power in a society. However, in a democracy every male Athenian has the chance to change policy and express his own idea. Of course if you are a slave or a women there is no chance of this. The Greeks are the first people to create a society based on equality(Cite). Society is no longer based how rich you are or who your family, but rather Instead the ability to convince other people of your opinions is the thing that creates power. It is during this time the art of rhetoric comes into being. Greece, during its height is full of great orators who convince the people through the speeches to follow them. These great orator are the fathers of the great speech makers who have shaped western thought.
The military consequences of this political system are crucial. Before Greece fighting was done mainly by aristocrats. In books like the Iliad, the rich aristocrats of the city are the only people who can afford to fight and duke it out with other rich people. The poor were not involved in the battles at all. Athens and her democratic ways changed this with what it is known as the Hoplite revolution. No longer are the rich the only people allowed to fight. Rather every land owning citizen is expected to go out and fight for his country regardless of his wealth or status. Wars were no longer something that the rich can indulge themselves in when they felt like it. Rather war became far more practical, every man of the city went out and fought so he could return to his city as soon as possible. This opened a whole new way of fighting for western culture.
Greece primarily influenced western cultures by its original concepts rather then practical ideas. For example no western nation today actually use democracy in its true form today. One can only imagine the chaos that would erupt if Canada randomly chose three hundred people out of Canada to rule each month. Its not practical or even wise way of ruling. Likewise western thought has proved many of the Greeks scientific theories wrong, and gone away from much of the actual ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Lastly we do not use the Greek conscription as way of modern warfare unless in a time of emergency. For in order to have a truly effective army the army needs to train and live together. Thus, while the Greeks did give us the original concepts the west needed an empire who could take these concepts and make them practical so that they could best benefit western civilization. The Romans through practicality and efficiently took the Greek concepts and put them into usable system that proved to be the foundation of western thought and Europe.
Polybius, a Roman, argued that there are three different types of government. There is the rule of one called a monarchy, the rule of a few called oligarchy, or The rule of the people known as democracy. Polybius saw weaknesses in each one. On the one hand monarchy can be used to perpetrate great crimes against the people. Oligarchy tends to favour the rich few aristocrats who easily abuse their power over the poor common people. While democracy as was seen in Greece can often turn into mob rule and leaving the country in constant turmoil. Polybius argued that the best system was a combination of these three types of governments.
The Republic of Rome was an attempt to create this mixture. While the Romans retained the Greek’s basic concept of the rule of law, they modified it to make a more balanced system. The Romans elected two consuls every year; these two men ruled and had the ultimate responsibility for Rome. The Senate represented the rich aristocrats who helped rule and advised the consul in matters of policy. Last of all the there was a tribune who represented the common people in advising the consuls. This type of government has become one of the most used governing systems in western Europe, for while representation was provided it still provided a sense of leadership and stability for the city.
This kind of republic relies on the city or polis as the center of the empire. The Romans were heirs to the Greek idea of the Polis(Anthony Pagden, 41). They took the Greek idea of polis and spread it over the known world. For unlike the Greeks Rome was not self sufficient but rather relied on the wider areas of Europe and Asia. The Romans not only conquered people but also took those people and Romanised them. James Wilson put it well when he said that , “It was not that Rome extended herself over the globe but that the inhabitants of the world poured themselves on the Romans”(Anthony Pagden, 41).
While the Greeks pictured a equal society, it was not the kind of equal society we picture today. Unless you were a Greek there was not possibility of you having any civil rights(M. I. Finley 73). This severely limited the extant there culture could spread. The Romans took this idea of equal society and went beyond race. Citizenship was no longer base on race alone but also on loyalty towards Rome. Rome wanted to a single society ruled by one law(Anthony Pagdan, 42). Rome through took the Barbarians tribal systems and changed it into an Italian style municipality(Christopher Dawson, 30).
This was transformation of the city not only based on ideas. It is a calculated and organized switch based on practicality and ingenuity. The Roman engineers divided the city into the forum area where all the political buildings were built, the Markets where goods could be brought in and sold, and the residential section of the city where the people lived. Many roman cities had running water and sewer systems. The Romans designed aqueducts that would bring water from the mountains to the city. These practical addition to the polis allow Greek thought to travel all the way from Gaul to the Middle East in many different climates. This simple module could be duplicated as many times as needed.
The Romans further built roads all over Europe connecting previously isolated settlements. The Romans were the first to use cement to create structure faster and better then any previous generation. Out of the this new technology came great structures such as the coliseum, many temples, and impressive new public buildings many of which still stand to some degree today. This essentially connected Europe and furthered the urbanization Process. For of all these new public buildings provided new reasons to go to the city. These structures also proved to be prototypes for the many basilicas that were built throughout the Middle Ages.
The Romans took the abstract philosophy and turned into a practical guide that Romans could live buy. The Romans practised duty and honour. In the history of Livy we see example after example of men who practice honour. The most memorable being when the Roman commander Camillus had the chance to defeat the enemy when a treacherous school teacher offered to turn over the richest kids in the city to him. Instead of taking advantage of the treacherous school teacher he sends the children home, telling his men that Rome must face her foes with honour(cite). Rome is not just another ruthlessly conquer ring her enemies like the Persians or Alexander, rather they at all times try to act with honour even to the people they defeat. The Roman‘s system of duty and honour is something that has been taught throughout western history as model fro both warfare and daily life.
This is directly connected with the military heritage the Romans gave Europe. While Greece came up with the concept of every citizen fighting for his city the Romans improved on this. For in reality it not very practical for farmer and merchant to have to continually pick up there swords and go fight. For if every Citizen has to fight, trade and commerce would continually come to a stand still. Not only this but the soldiers who went to fight would not get paid for his service. To solve this problem Marius a Roman tribune created the professional solider(cite). This meant that men could spend all their time training for war while the every citizen could attend to his daily work. This was model that was used throughout western warfare to great effect.
It is often said that when Rome Conquered Greece, Greece was the one who conquered actually won(Christopher Dawson, 30). While this has some truth it is important to realize that Rome was no less needed then Greece. Each civilization needed each other in order to become the great and influential civilization.
Friday, April 3, 2009
Reasons for the Nationalist Government Failure in China
Nowadays—during the early part of twenty-first century, Chinese people are enjoying rapid economic development, which has brought about happiness. However, during the middle of twentieth century, the situation was quite different. China drifted into civil war that did not end until the communist victory in 1949. During to two hundred years of wars, incalculable parties tried to control China, but they all failed but the communist party. Modern historians believe that it was due to a policy on citizen’s rights, corruption of the Nationalists, and Mao’s correct military principles that led to the victory of the communists. However the key issue to give them victory in China seems to be the policy of popular support.
The introduction of Kuomintang (the Chinese Nationalists party) states that, “In 1894, at a critical juncture in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, with clear perception and vision, traveled to Honolulu to appeal to the overseas Chinese there to form a revolutionary organization with the aim of rescuing the Chinese nation. Named the Revive China Society, it was the beginning of the Kuomintang” (p 1). From the quote we can see that the party’s mission is to rescue China. But what makes them break away the feudalization in China; they did not make the country become democratic and lose control of the nation?
For a very long time, the Nationalists party’s attempt to confine the Communist Party was really heavy. Kuomintang launched three large-scale attempts to suppress them. After this, the Communist Party was compelled to start the long march. Kuomintang had not had an adversary for a very long time[1]. Therefore, the failure of Kuomintang was due to its own mistake in China. Even though for so many reasons result Kuomintang in lost control of China, we cannot neglect their own problems of economy, management, corruption, and policy in the Kuomintang.
In order to understand the reason behind the Communist victory, and Kuomintang (Nationalists party) failure in the civil war. One must first look upon the political the military mechanisms of the Nationalist and Communist party. First of all the leaders of the parties are quite different in the character, the their goals and aspirations are quite different. Secondly, the effects of World War II are essential towards understanding Communist victory because both parties’ power base and structure was dramatically changed due to this war. Thirdly, after looking at these two components, one should then be able to understand and dissect the reason behind the communist party’s victory in both winning the war militarily and gaining the nation’s support morally.
Finance and economy problems led to the total collapse of the regime and decline of the Nationalist Government. In his article, “The financial and economic collapse with the Kuomintang in the mainland declined”, Li Liming states, “After the war of resistance against Japan, the collapse of the economy resulted in military conflicts and apolitical crisis, and lead to the Nationalist Government defeat”(1). During Nationalist government ruled China, Sidajiazu[2] (four big families) became richer by monopolizing finance, trade, industry, agriculture, and military affairs. Sidajizu pocketed the huge profit but the government had no money for it own support. In his book, China’s Sidajiazu, Chen Boda states, “Sidaijiazu in the financial, commercial, industrial, as well as their foreign deposit and property, to rough statistics, at least 20 billion US dollars” (p.147 pa.6). Although Chiang Kai Shek tried hard to fix this problem, he could not satisfy their greed of Sidajiazu. On the other hand, inflation was a large problem for the Nationalist government because the huge expenditures of civil war and currency reform failure that accelerated the economy collapse. After the World War II, Kuomintang returned to large cities with the hope of developing the economy. However, the government tried printing more money to finance the expenses of industrial development, however this behavior caused a serious consequence—inflation. In the article, “Civil War”, ThinkingQuest states, “Prices in 1947 were up to a hundred and fifty thousands times as much as that before civil war started” (1). In 1948, inflation became out of control, the Nationalist government tried to command the problem by issuing the new currency, and the government restricted the printing bank paper, but the measure did not stop total financial collapsed. Financial and economic collapse has not only caused people’s struggle for survival, but also aggravated the internal factions of Nationalist party and the intensification of military conflicts and political conflict.
Otherwise, the Communist party’s main goal in the controlled areas was to increase the productive capacity. The party impartially rewarded workers for efficiency and productivity. Therefore, there was almost no corruption in the Communist party at that time. Also, to reduce the effects of inflation, the Communist party issued their own currency that was not associated with the Kuomintang’s currencies. To some extent, the changes made by the Communist party improved the situation in the previously Nationalist dominated area.
These management mistakes led to a serious failure of the Nationalist government. In the 1930s the decentralization and political disorder induced inefficient management, without clear objectives. The government laid stress on controlling local rights but less decision-making, conversing in the excessive central control of power excessively convergente. In their article, “Gathering and Scattering Power and the history of the evolution of China's modernization”, Ma Shangbin and Wang Suo state that, the decision-making power was too concentrated and finally resulted in low level institutionalization. Kuomintang in the separation of powers should have strengthened social control, and implementation of local forces weakened and the eradication policy (p1). The mistake of management meant that Kuomintang did not have good policies for their party. Therefore, Kuomintang had enormous army and advanced weapons, but they still could not win the civil war because of improper management.
Because of the corruption plaguing the government, Chiang began to lose hold over China to the forces of Mao Zedong. Over a very long time, government was deteriorating with corruption and inflation. During the Civil War, Kuomintang’s military discipline was lax; the behavior of bribes and corrupting could be found everywhere. Management efficiency and fighting capacity were very low. But the government conduct followed the old routine; there was no effective policy to change the status quo. Therefore, public opinion brought a lot of pressure to Kuomintang. On the other hand, corrupting intimidated the ruling of the government. However, the Nationalist had implemented some decrees and measures, for example, “The Wartime Discipline of Troops, the Provisional Regulations of Punishing and Suppressing Corruption, The Decree of Rectifying Official Administration, the Regulations of Punishing and Suppressing Corruption, etc” (“Punishment of the National Government on the corruption issue” p1 pp 3). It worked well for a short time. It punished many criminals of corruption, but ultimately failed in effective punishment of corruption. For the seriousness of the problem, Chiang Kai Shek (the leader of Nationalist at that time) believed, Kuomintang failured because of itself corrupt.
In addition, Kuomintang did not do the most important thing at that time—land reform. After the World War I and World War II, people needed their own land to recover production; however, the problem is that most of the land was still owned by a small number of people. Therefore, the average distribution land is the key issue that gave the party victory in the civil war. However, Kuomintang did not make a successful land reform movement because they represented the large landowners and large asset class. The main leaders of Kuomintang were usually from rich families, in order to safeguard their own interests; they had not led to an effective land movement. At the same time, Communist party held a large-scale land reform movement. The main purpose of the reform was to transfer land from landlord to peasant; however, the Communist party used an effective way to make peasants get land freely: bring down all landlords, confiscate their property and distribute the land to evenly single peasant. The movement got broad masses of peasants, workers, and intellectuals’ support. Therefore, with the land reform carried, more and more people wished Communist party victory in the Chinese civil war. There is a Chinese proverb: The waster that bears the boat is the same that swallows it. To sum up, land reform was not the golden key to open the door of victory but the key that got support from people. It was the mean reason for Nationalist government failure in China.
On the October 1st 1949, when Mao Tse-tung declared the People's Republic of China had come into existence, it also pronounced sentence of Nationalist Government failure in Chinese main land. A five-year civil war ended. People are finally enjoying the peace after hundreds years of war in China main land. There are many reasons behind the Nationalist party failure the civil war in China mainland, but the main reason and drive behind the Nationalist government’s failure was their did not get support from the mass people. When we look around the world history; there are many examples in the world that are similar to Nationalist government, when the side with the least people’s support will often ends up as a loser. Therefore, the one thing, looking at the Chinese civil war, military technology and abundant financial support are not the key factors to winning the war.
[1] Before Long March, Communist had 80,000 soldiers, however, after long march; it was only about 30,000 soldiers left (1). Jiangxi University Newspaper, 1983.
[2] The “four big families” (Sidajiazu) – the wealthiest bureaucratic-capitalist families in the Nationalist regime. They have consanguineous relationships with Jiangjieshi.
Rough - the Karen of Burma
**Please note that this is a VERY rough sketch of my ideas and thoughts. I am researching whether or not the Karen of Burma have lost their identity and I have to come up with some sort of solution eventually. So much of what I have here are quotes with my responses in trying to tie the Karen into the communication theories and ideas from my class/text and other sources. Some of it is questions I hope to answer (kind of reminders for me) so please don't mind those too much!
Identity is the foundation of behaviours, actions, values and beliefs. It drives into the core of every human being. What happens when a nation no longer has a sense of identity? How does a culture live coexist with its members when they have no common identity? Between religious differences, violent persecution, and continual uprooting, the Karen are losing their identity.
As the second largest ethnic group in Burma, the Karen…
“Conflicts can arise, however, when there are sharp differences between who we think we are and who others think we are” (Martin and Nakayama, 154)
Ascription—process in which others attribute identities to people (158). The Burman army has ascribed an identity to the Karen that is different from who they really are. This identity views them as an ethnic minority, although they comprise the second largest group in Burma. It is not so much hatred towards the Karen than it is a hatred towards any ethnicity other than Burmese.
(on military soldiers forced to marry other ethnic women) “Not only would it physically dilute the ethnic races into oblivion but it would also succeed in eradicating the culture and identity of the ethnic groups” (Benedict, 161—the deeper we probe, Burma issues, Oct. 2002)
“The social forces that give rise to particular identities are never stable but are always changing” (161). Interpellation seems to best describe the Karen’s current situation. Having been forced into specific identity by the Burman army, the Karen “must begin from that position in carving out a new identity” (Martin and Nakayama, 160). Creating a new identity is a struggle in itself. “While change sweeps the surface, the deeper layers remain stable, and the culture rises from its ashes like the phoenix” (Hofstede, 36). Confusion of identities?
“[Identity] is often rooted in language and/or religious affiliations, and it’s perceived and felt both by the holders of the identity and by the environment that does not share it” (Hofstede, 322)
“How an individuals’ identity develops depends partly on the relative position or location of the identity within the societal hierarchy” (M&N, 163) – the Karen are low in the societal hierarchy (basically anyone who isn’t ethnically Burman).
Karen may have an ethnic identity—“involves a shared sense of origin and history” (perhaps even with other Burmese minority cultures that are being persecuted too). “A sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group” (M&N, 175) – perhaps the Karen are losing this identity because they are being uprooted and displaced from their ethnic groups.
“The way parents live their own culture provides the child with his or her cultural identity.” (Hofstede, 367) How is this affected by the uprooting, living in refugee camps, and focusing on surviving? Is identity lost through the fight to survive? What kind of identity does this give young children growing up in this environment?
“Many ethnic or racial groups share the experience of oppression. In response, they may generate attitudes and behaviours consistent with a natural internal struggle to develop a strong sense of group of identity and self-identities. For many cultural groups, these strong identities ensure their survival.” (177) But is this enough to ensure the survival of the Karen? If they are losing their identity, is it possible that they will fail to survive?
“Villagers are forbidden to work in their fields, and therefore they lose their rice harvest” (157) -
“Karen society, both in the past and at present, is a society that concentrates on production for consumption in the household … Farmers thus plant rice or protect rice varieties according to their own likes and dislikes … rather than cultivation being determined by market fluctuations”.23 (Thirayut, Phanthukam khao, pp. 36–7. (Karen Consensus :p. 149)
Identity in their work – came to their land as farmers (the name for the Karen State in their language can be interpreted as Green Land (? – from A Land without evil). They have lost this.
“The Karen people are full of colourful characters” (171)
“Most have either Karen names or traditional English names”, but some have unusual names – like Winston Churchill, Billy Graham, etc. –don’t names provide a sense of identity? Names tell a lot about a person (notes??)
Generosity and love of the Karen people – “the gifts they gave were of themselves—their time, energy and love. In my experience in the West it is easier to go to the store and buy a trinket as a gift,” she said. “For this reason I have chosen to raise my children in this war. The influence of these people is something I have never experienced anywhere else.” (quote from someone’s wife—189)
The Karen are sacrificial (217 for example, last para)
Do they have a RELIGIOUS identity?? Less than half are Christians, the rest are Buddhist and animists
“Bonded cultures are characterized by groups that are specific but not dominant” (176)
Questions:
What has the violence they have experienced with their own eyes done to their identity
What has the violence they have experienced with their own eyes done to their identity?
Racial and ethnic identities –are/were they a large part of the Karen identity?
__________________________________________________________________
Identity is the foundation of behaviours, actions, values and beliefs. It drives into the core of every human being. What happens when a nation no longer has a sense of identity? How does a culture live coexist with its members when they have no common identity? Between religious differences, violent persecution, and continual uprooting, the Karen are losing their identity.
As the second largest ethnic group in Burma, the Karen…
“Conflicts can arise, however, when there are sharp differences between who we think we are and who others think we are” (Martin and Nakayama, 154)
Ascription—process in which others attribute identities to people (158). The Burman army has ascribed an identity to the Karen that is different from who they really are. This identity views them as an ethnic minority, although they comprise the second largest group in Burma. It is not so much hatred towards the Karen than it is a hatred towards any ethnicity other than Burmese.
(on military soldiers forced to marry other ethnic women) “Not only would it physically dilute the ethnic races into oblivion but it would also succeed in eradicating the culture and identity of the ethnic groups” (Benedict, 161—the deeper we probe, Burma issues, Oct. 2002)
“The social forces that give rise to particular identities are never stable but are always changing” (161). Interpellation seems to best describe the Karen’s current situation. Having been forced into specific identity by the Burman army, the Karen “must begin from that position in carving out a new identity” (Martin and Nakayama, 160). Creating a new identity is a struggle in itself. “While change sweeps the surface, the deeper layers remain stable, and the culture rises from its ashes like the phoenix” (Hofstede, 36). Confusion of identities?
“[Identity] is often rooted in language and/or religious affiliations, and it’s perceived and felt both by the holders of the identity and by the environment that does not share it” (Hofstede, 322)
“How an individuals’ identity develops depends partly on the relative position or location of the identity within the societal hierarchy” (M&N, 163) – the Karen are low in the societal hierarchy (basically anyone who isn’t ethnically Burman).
Karen may have an ethnic identity—“involves a shared sense of origin and history” (perhaps even with other Burmese minority cultures that are being persecuted too). “A sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group” (M&N, 175) – perhaps the Karen are losing this identity because they are being uprooted and displaced from their ethnic groups.
“The way parents live their own culture provides the child with his or her cultural identity.” (Hofstede, 367) How is this affected by the uprooting, living in refugee camps, and focusing on surviving? Is identity lost through the fight to survive? What kind of identity does this give young children growing up in this environment?
“Many ethnic or racial groups share the experience of oppression. In response, they may generate attitudes and behaviours consistent with a natural internal struggle to develop a strong sense of group of identity and self-identities. For many cultural groups, these strong identities ensure their survival.” (177) But is this enough to ensure the survival of the Karen? If they are losing their identity, is it possible that they will fail to survive?
“Villagers are forbidden to work in their fields, and therefore they lose their rice harvest” (157) -
“Karen society, both in the past and at present, is a society that concentrates on production for consumption in the household … Farmers thus plant rice or protect rice varieties according to their own likes and dislikes … rather than cultivation being determined by market fluctuations”.23 (Thirayut, Phanthukam khao, pp. 36–7. (Karen Consensus :p. 149)
Identity in their work – came to their land as farmers (the name for the Karen State in their language can be interpreted as Green Land (? – from A Land without evil). They have lost this.
“The Karen people are full of colourful characters” (171)
“Most have either Karen names or traditional English names”, but some have unusual names – like Winston Churchill, Billy Graham, etc. –don’t names provide a sense of identity? Names tell a lot about a person (notes??)
Generosity and love of the Karen people – “the gifts they gave were of themselves—their time, energy and love. In my experience in the West it is easier to go to the store and buy a trinket as a gift,” she said. “For this reason I have chosen to raise my children in this war. The influence of these people is something I have never experienced anywhere else.” (quote from someone’s wife—189)
The Karen are sacrificial (217 for example, last para)
Do they have a RELIGIOUS identity?? Less than half are Christians, the rest are Buddhist and animists
“Bonded cultures are characterized by groups that are specific but not dominant” (176)
Questions:
What has the violence they have experienced with their own eyes done to their identity
What has the violence they have experienced with their own eyes done to their identity?
Racial and ethnic identities –are/were they a large part of the Karen identity?
another rough draft
Whether it is an intense action sequence in the latest block buster or the six o’clock news, we often are exposed to some sort of violence almost every day. Despite being daily exposed with this violence, many still can not stomach the violence which the southern Catholic author, Flannery O’Conner, portrays. Despite many responses to the violence in O’Connor’s stories, it is the same violence that the Bible shows.
All of Flannery O’Connor short stories and novels contain a good amount of violence, but for the purpose of this paper I will only deal with two. The first will be her novel The Violent Bear it Away and the second will be her short story “A Good Man is Hard to Find”. The former follows the story of Mason Tarwater. This boy had grown up with his great uncle who taught Tarwater that he would become a prophet. After his great uncle’s death Tarwater is called to baptize his mentally retarded cousin. However, Tarwater refuses to fulfill his calling to the point where he drowns his cousin in a lake instead of baptizing him. As Tarwater runs from the lake, he is given a ride by a stranger. This man gives Tarwater marijuana and whiskey causing Tarwater to lose consciousness. The man then rapes Tarwater leaving him in the forest. This event marks the start of a change in Tarwater. After re-visiting his uncle’s grave Tarwater finally accepts his calling (Baumgaertner 190). The end of the novel shows how Tarwater’s failure to run from God causes Tarwater to live the life of a prophet (Giannone 11)
“A Good Man is Hard to Find” is the story of a family and their grandmother traveling to Florida. The story focuses on the grandmother. The grandmother makes it clear to her son that she would rather go to Tennessee then to Florida claiming that she is merely thinking of their safety as there is a serial killer called the misfit on the lose. She brings the cat along ignoring the fact that her son had insisted the cat stay home. She makes sure she is well dressed for the road trip for if they got in accident she would want everyone to know that she was a lady. Finally, when a side street reminds her of a plantation she knew she was younger she insists on turning and seeing it there. However, she soon remembers that the street was the wrong one after all. The realization causes her to upset the cat. This causes a train of event which end up with the family stranded on the road with their car wrecked. It is then that the serial killer the Misfit comes on the scene. One by one he has the entire family killed leaving the grandmother behind. As the Misfit is about to kill the grandmother, she cries out that the Misfit is her child. Ignoring her pleas to be spared, the Misfit kills the grandmother
The first horrifying aspect of the violence in these two stories is the victims. In the first story we see a boy being raped by a homosexual while in the second we see a proper elderly lady being killed by a serial killer. It is not just that these horrible things happened to these vulnerable people, but that O’Connor actually has these characters find grace in these events. Just before the Misfit kills the grandmother, the grandmother says that the misfit is her child. In this act the grandmother is receiving grace through the misfit’s actions because she admits that they are apart of the same family and are responsible for each other (Keil). Similarly, Tarwater finds grace in his rape as this starts him turning towards his call. However, this does not sit well with many. These bad things should not happen to these types of people. If the misfit or homosexual rapist underwent a violent encounter that would be easier to stomache.
O’Connor using these people in this way, however, is just following how Jesus acted in the Bible. Jesus would eat dinner with tax collectors and prostitutes, He had ready forgiveness for the murders and thieves, but the middle class Pharisees he pronounces judgment on (Wilson) and he chases the money lenders from the temple. Those who have the outward appearance of goodness often under go the most horrifying violence in order to receive God’s grace.
Another disturbing element about the violence in these two stories is the fact that O’Connor uses evil men to bring the grace. We expect nice ministers or even shining angels to bring grace to those in need. Instead O’Connor uses a murderer and a rapist. These men do not know about God’s grace. They instead do everything to rebel against God’s word in their actions. How can grace come in this way?
Although God does use the ministers and the angel, we must never underestimate his use of the darkness. He does this continually throughout the Bible. Whether it be a terrible flood in Noah’s case, a command to execute his own son in Abraham’s case, or a deep pit in Joseph’s case, God has been bringing grace through the dark things in this world (Wilson).
Not that this grace by violence is an easy thing to endure. The grandmother was killed and Tarwater went through a great amount of anguish. “Grace cuts. It hurts; it slices; it makes us bleed” (Wilson) Grace is not easy, and yet without it the Grandmother and Tarwater would not have experienced the wonders of what awaits them after death. Their reward is worth the price they pay. They face no more then what Jesus faced when he took upon himself our sins and died the cruel death of a crucifixion. He even endured the father turning his face away from him. Surely, any darkness face by the grandmother or Tarwater is minute in comparison.
It is important to remember, however, that the Christian faith is more then just about this horrible violence. Instead this is that aspect that O’Connor chose to explore in her writing. Jesus commands us to take up our crosses and follow him and there are many blessings of the cross. O’Connor, however, explores the suffering of what it means to follow Christ and take up our own cross (Shloss 100).
The violence and grace in O’Connor’s stories is especially horrifying since it is the vulnerable who are violated and killed, and it is those who victimize the vulnerable that bring about God’s grace. While this might be horrible, it is the same violence that many Biblical figure endured including Jesus himself.
All of Flannery O’Connor short stories and novels contain a good amount of violence, but for the purpose of this paper I will only deal with two. The first will be her novel The Violent Bear it Away and the second will be her short story “A Good Man is Hard to Find”. The former follows the story of Mason Tarwater. This boy had grown up with his great uncle who taught Tarwater that he would become a prophet. After his great uncle’s death Tarwater is called to baptize his mentally retarded cousin. However, Tarwater refuses to fulfill his calling to the point where he drowns his cousin in a lake instead of baptizing him. As Tarwater runs from the lake, he is given a ride by a stranger. This man gives Tarwater marijuana and whiskey causing Tarwater to lose consciousness. The man then rapes Tarwater leaving him in the forest. This event marks the start of a change in Tarwater. After re-visiting his uncle’s grave Tarwater finally accepts his calling (Baumgaertner 190). The end of the novel shows how Tarwater’s failure to run from God causes Tarwater to live the life of a prophet (Giannone 11)
“A Good Man is Hard to Find” is the story of a family and their grandmother traveling to Florida. The story focuses on the grandmother. The grandmother makes it clear to her son that she would rather go to Tennessee then to Florida claiming that she is merely thinking of their safety as there is a serial killer called the misfit on the lose. She brings the cat along ignoring the fact that her son had insisted the cat stay home. She makes sure she is well dressed for the road trip for if they got in accident she would want everyone to know that she was a lady. Finally, when a side street reminds her of a plantation she knew she was younger she insists on turning and seeing it there. However, she soon remembers that the street was the wrong one after all. The realization causes her to upset the cat. This causes a train of event which end up with the family stranded on the road with their car wrecked. It is then that the serial killer the Misfit comes on the scene. One by one he has the entire family killed leaving the grandmother behind. As the Misfit is about to kill the grandmother, she cries out that the Misfit is her child. Ignoring her pleas to be spared, the Misfit kills the grandmother
The first horrifying aspect of the violence in these two stories is the victims. In the first story we see a boy being raped by a homosexual while in the second we see a proper elderly lady being killed by a serial killer. It is not just that these horrible things happened to these vulnerable people, but that O’Connor actually has these characters find grace in these events. Just before the Misfit kills the grandmother, the grandmother says that the misfit is her child. In this act the grandmother is receiving grace through the misfit’s actions because she admits that they are apart of the same family and are responsible for each other (Keil). Similarly, Tarwater finds grace in his rape as this starts him turning towards his call. However, this does not sit well with many. These bad things should not happen to these types of people. If the misfit or homosexual rapist underwent a violent encounter that would be easier to stomache.
O’Connor using these people in this way, however, is just following how Jesus acted in the Bible. Jesus would eat dinner with tax collectors and prostitutes, He had ready forgiveness for the murders and thieves, but the middle class Pharisees he pronounces judgment on (Wilson) and he chases the money lenders from the temple. Those who have the outward appearance of goodness often under go the most horrifying violence in order to receive God’s grace.
Another disturbing element about the violence in these two stories is the fact that O’Connor uses evil men to bring the grace. We expect nice ministers or even shining angels to bring grace to those in need. Instead O’Connor uses a murderer and a rapist. These men do not know about God’s grace. They instead do everything to rebel against God’s word in their actions. How can grace come in this way?
Although God does use the ministers and the angel, we must never underestimate his use of the darkness. He does this continually throughout the Bible. Whether it be a terrible flood in Noah’s case, a command to execute his own son in Abraham’s case, or a deep pit in Joseph’s case, God has been bringing grace through the dark things in this world (Wilson).
Not that this grace by violence is an easy thing to endure. The grandmother was killed and Tarwater went through a great amount of anguish. “Grace cuts. It hurts; it slices; it makes us bleed” (Wilson) Grace is not easy, and yet without it the Grandmother and Tarwater would not have experienced the wonders of what awaits them after death. Their reward is worth the price they pay. They face no more then what Jesus faced when he took upon himself our sins and died the cruel death of a crucifixion. He even endured the father turning his face away from him. Surely, any darkness face by the grandmother or Tarwater is minute in comparison.
It is important to remember, however, that the Christian faith is more then just about this horrible violence. Instead this is that aspect that O’Connor chose to explore in her writing. Jesus commands us to take up our crosses and follow him and there are many blessings of the cross. O’Connor, however, explores the suffering of what it means to follow Christ and take up our own cross (Shloss 100).
The violence and grace in O’Connor’s stories is especially horrifying since it is the vulnerable who are violated and killed, and it is those who victimize the vulnerable that bring about God’s grace. While this might be horrible, it is the same violence that many Biblical figure endured including Jesus himself.
Wednesday, April 1, 2009
>Revised introductory paragraphs
The Voice of the Tempter
The presence of a voice is all you need to identify a speaker. It is the messages that come from the mouth that serve to give you a look into a speaker’s character. This assumption is the case in the well-known novel authored by Flannery O’Connor: The Violent Bear It Away. A key character named “the stranger” is a spiritual being that can only be identified by his voice. As the stranger interacts in the novel his discourse reveals a character, which parallels Satan’s temptation to Christ. Both characters conceal their identity, weave a narrative of doubt and discouragement, and tempt the flesh.O’Connor was born in 1925 and created a showcase of literary works, one of them being The Violent Bear It Away. This novel portrays an intense battle of having faith in Jesus Christ or denying Him as Lord. The fight is centred on a young boy named Tartwater and a voice that compels him to stray from the truth—the stranger. In her work, O ‘Connor explicitly portrays the rawness of sin and pain, but also provides hope for the reader through the redemption of Jesus Christ. It is through the violence displayed and the effects of original sin that conveys the message of grace and hope admist the pain in her novels (Biography). O’Connor herself even says… “the demonic which may seem to triumph in the here and now, will in the end be overcome” (Studies in Literary Imagination 143).
Monday, March 30, 2009
Capstone Paper Draft
Capstone Paper Draft
History 109 Paper
Intro- Thesis on the reconstruction of Japan after world war two. How Japan turned their momentum from being a strong military power to becoming one of the strongest economies after being bombed by an atomic bomb.
Section One- Explains the ending of world war two, including sources of accounts of the beginning of the reconstruction. This fist section will deal with end of WW2 and the beginning of reconstruction.
Second Section- Covers the time after the beginning of the reconstruction to modern day. Will cover the 1970s economy crash in Japan.
Third Section- Final section to explain the factors that went into this economic miracle and why it was so miraculous.
Summary
History 109 Paper
Intro- Thesis on the reconstruction of Japan after world war two. How Japan turned their momentum from being a strong military power to becoming one of the strongest economies after being bombed by an atomic bomb.
Section One- Explains the ending of world war two, including sources of accounts of the beginning of the reconstruction. This fist section will deal with end of WW2 and the beginning of reconstruction.
Second Section- Covers the time after the beginning of the reconstruction to modern day. Will cover the 1970s economy crash in Japan.
Third Section- Final section to explain the factors that went into this economic miracle and why it was so miraculous.
Summary
My Capstone Paper's Remarkable Rough Outline
Alright, so... Everyone has a lot more done than I do... I'll have to get working on that.
Because the essay I'm using for this assignment wasn't originally a research essay, it's going to be formatted with two distinct sections: the analysis portion, focusing on the chapter I'm supposed to be writing about; and the research portion, which will take an idea from that chapter and expound on it with research from various sources.
Here's the basic outline:
Intro:
- Thesis: Lindvall and Quicke's chapter discusses how Christians can make an impact in the film industry, yet glosses over the reality that more and more religious themes are cropping up in secular films. Do these religious themes in popular secular films such as Harry Potter, Star Wars, and The Matrix have any real value for the Christian community, or are they shallow and empty?
First Section (roughly 500 words):
- I'll be discussing what the book Understanding Evangelical Media says about Christianity and Christian film makers in film, touching on a the main points of the chapter and discussing whether or not I agree with what is being said - mainly that
Second Section (roughly 1000 words):
- This section will focus on secular films like the Harry Potter series, the Star Wars trilogies, and the Matrix trilogy. I will analyze the religious themes and images found within each and critique them, while relating everything back to the film chapter from Understanding Evangelical Media.
Conclusion
- In the conclusion, I will summarize my findings and my analysis.
Because the essay I'm using for this assignment wasn't originally a research essay, it's going to be formatted with two distinct sections: the analysis portion, focusing on the chapter I'm supposed to be writing about; and the research portion, which will take an idea from that chapter and expound on it with research from various sources.
Here's the basic outline:
Intro:
- Thesis: Lindvall and Quicke's chapter discusses how Christians can make an impact in the film industry, yet glosses over the reality that more and more religious themes are cropping up in secular films. Do these religious themes in popular secular films such as Harry Potter, Star Wars, and The Matrix have any real value for the Christian community, or are they shallow and empty?
First Section (roughly 500 words):
- I'll be discussing what the book Understanding Evangelical Media says about Christianity and Christian film makers in film, touching on a the main points of the chapter and discussing whether or not I agree with what is being said - mainly that
Second Section (roughly 1000 words):
- This section will focus on secular films like the Harry Potter series, the Star Wars trilogies, and the Matrix trilogy. I will analyze the religious themes and images found within each and critique them, while relating everything back to the film chapter from Understanding Evangelical Media.
Conclusion
- In the conclusion, I will summarize my findings and my analysis.
Saturday, March 28, 2009
Just an Really Rough Outline
1. Profile
a. Demographics
Southeast Asia
b. Significant cultural orientations (hofstede, hall, etc.)
i. Collective
ii. Long-term oriented
iii. Masculine vs. feminine
iv. PDI
v. Abstract vs. … thinking
2. The problem
a. Background
i. 20 years in refugee camps
ii. Mistreatment and persecution
iii. Unhealthy living conditions
iv. Immigrating – many to Canada
b. Struggle adapting to life in Canada
i. English language studies
ii. Time orientation – fast pace
iii. technology
c. Demonstrate change (effects of war, poverty, cultural borrowing)
i. Practical solution
a. Demographics
Southeast Asia
b. Significant cultural orientations (hofstede, hall, etc.)
i. Collective
ii. Long-term oriented
iii. Masculine vs. feminine
iv. PDI
v. Abstract vs. … thinking
2. The problem
a. Background
i. 20 years in refugee camps
ii. Mistreatment and persecution
iii. Unhealthy living conditions
iv. Immigrating – many to Canada
b. Struggle adapting to life in Canada
i. English language studies
ii. Time orientation – fast pace
iii. technology
c. Demonstrate change (effects of war, poverty, cultural borrowing)
i. Practical solution
Friday, March 27, 2009
a very rough draft
Whether it is an intense action sequence in the latest block buster or the six o’clock news, we often are exposed to some sort of violence almost every day. And yet, many still can not stomach the violence which the southern Catholic author, Flannery O’Conner, portrays. In this paper, I will look at why the violence in two of O’Connor’s stories is horrifying and then compare her view of grace and violence to the Biblical idea.
All of Flannery O’Connor short stories and novels contain a good amount of violence, but for the purpose of this paper I will only deal with two. The first will be her novel The Violent Bear it Away and the second will be her short story “A Good Man is Hard to Find”. The former follows the story of Mason Tarwater. This boy had grown up with his great uncle who taught Tarwater that he would become a prophet. After his great uncle’s death Tarwater is called to baptize his mentally retarded cousin. However, Tarwater refuses to fulfill his calling to the point where he drowns his cousin in a lake instead of baptizing him. As Tarwater runs from the lake, he is given a ride by a stranger. This man gives Tarwater marijuana and whiskey causing Tarwater to lose consciousness. The man then rapes Tarwater leaving him in the forest. This event marks the start of a change in Tarwater. After re-visiting his uncle’s grave Tarwater finally accepts his calling (Baumgaertner 190). The end of the novel shows how Tarwater’s failure to run from God causes Tarwater to live the life of a prophet (Giannone 11)
“A Good Man is Hard to Find” is the story of a family and their grandmother traveling to Florida. The story focuses on the grandmother. The grandmother makes it clear to her son that she would rather go to Tennessee then to Florida claiming that she is merely thinking of their safety as there is a serial killer called the misfit on the lose. She brings the cat along ignoring the fact that her son had insisted the cat stay home. She makes sure she is well dressed for the road trip for if they got in accident she would want everyone to know that she was a lady. Finally, when a side street reminds her of a plantation she knew she was younger she insists on turning and seeing it there. However, she soon remembers that the street was the wrong one after all. The realization causes her to upset the cat. This causes a train of event which end up with the family stranded on the road with their car wrecked. It is then that the serial killer the Misfit comes on the scene. One by one he has the entire family killed leaving the grandmother behind. As the Misfit is about to kill the grandmother, she cries out that the Misfit is her child. Ignoring her pleas to be spared, the Misfit kills the grandmother
The first horrifying aspect of the violence in these two stories is the victims. In the first story we see a boy being raped by a homosexual while in the second we see a proper elderly lady being killed by a serial killer. It is not just that these horrible things happened to these vulnerable people, but that O’Connor actually has these characters find grace in these events.
Just before the Misfit kills the grandmother, the grandmother says that the misfit is her child. In this act the grandmother is receiving grace through the misfit because she admits that they are apart of the same family and are responsible for each other (Keil). Similarly, Tarwater finds grace in his rape as this starts him turning towards his call. However, this does not sit well with many. These bad things should not happen to these types of people. If the misfit or homosexual rapist underwent a violent encounter that would be fine.
O’Connor using these people in this way, however, is just following Jesus. Jesus would eat dinner with tax collectors and prostitutes, He had ready forgiveness for the murders and thieves, but the middle class Pharisees he pronounces judgment on (Wilson) and he chases the money lenders from the temple. Those who have the outward appearance of goodness often under go the most horrifying violence in order to receive God’s grace.
Another disturbing element about the violence in these two stories is the fact that O’Connor uses evil men to bring the grace. We expect nice ministers or even shining angels to bring grace to those in need. Instead O’Connor uses a murderer and a rapist. Although God does use the ministers and the angel, we must never underestimate his use of the darkness. He does this continually throughout the Bible. Whether it be a terrible flood in Noah’s case, a command to execute his own son in Abraham’s case, or a deep pit in Joseph’s case, God has been bringing grace through the dark things in this world (Wilson).
Not that this grace by violence is an easy thing to endure. The grandmother was killed and Tarwater went through a great amount of anguish. “Grace cuts. It hurts; it slices; it makes us bleed” (Wilson) Not that the entire Christian faith is about this horrible violence, but it is that aspect that O’Connor chose to explore in her writing. There are many blessings of the cross, but O’Connor explores the suffering of what it means to follow Christ and take up our own cross (Shloss 100).
The violence and grace in O’Connor’s stories is especially horrifying since it is the vulnerable who are violated and killed, and it is those who victimize the vulnerable that bring about God’s grace.
All of Flannery O’Connor short stories and novels contain a good amount of violence, but for the purpose of this paper I will only deal with two. The first will be her novel The Violent Bear it Away and the second will be her short story “A Good Man is Hard to Find”. The former follows the story of Mason Tarwater. This boy had grown up with his great uncle who taught Tarwater that he would become a prophet. After his great uncle’s death Tarwater is called to baptize his mentally retarded cousin. However, Tarwater refuses to fulfill his calling to the point where he drowns his cousin in a lake instead of baptizing him. As Tarwater runs from the lake, he is given a ride by a stranger. This man gives Tarwater marijuana and whiskey causing Tarwater to lose consciousness. The man then rapes Tarwater leaving him in the forest. This event marks the start of a change in Tarwater. After re-visiting his uncle’s grave Tarwater finally accepts his calling (Baumgaertner 190). The end of the novel shows how Tarwater’s failure to run from God causes Tarwater to live the life of a prophet (Giannone 11)
“A Good Man is Hard to Find” is the story of a family and their grandmother traveling to Florida. The story focuses on the grandmother. The grandmother makes it clear to her son that she would rather go to Tennessee then to Florida claiming that she is merely thinking of their safety as there is a serial killer called the misfit on the lose. She brings the cat along ignoring the fact that her son had insisted the cat stay home. She makes sure she is well dressed for the road trip for if they got in accident she would want everyone to know that she was a lady. Finally, when a side street reminds her of a plantation she knew she was younger she insists on turning and seeing it there. However, she soon remembers that the street was the wrong one after all. The realization causes her to upset the cat. This causes a train of event which end up with the family stranded on the road with their car wrecked. It is then that the serial killer the Misfit comes on the scene. One by one he has the entire family killed leaving the grandmother behind. As the Misfit is about to kill the grandmother, she cries out that the Misfit is her child. Ignoring her pleas to be spared, the Misfit kills the grandmother
The first horrifying aspect of the violence in these two stories is the victims. In the first story we see a boy being raped by a homosexual while in the second we see a proper elderly lady being killed by a serial killer. It is not just that these horrible things happened to these vulnerable people, but that O’Connor actually has these characters find grace in these events.
Just before the Misfit kills the grandmother, the grandmother says that the misfit is her child. In this act the grandmother is receiving grace through the misfit because she admits that they are apart of the same family and are responsible for each other (Keil). Similarly, Tarwater finds grace in his rape as this starts him turning towards his call. However, this does not sit well with many. These bad things should not happen to these types of people. If the misfit or homosexual rapist underwent a violent encounter that would be fine.
O’Connor using these people in this way, however, is just following Jesus. Jesus would eat dinner with tax collectors and prostitutes, He had ready forgiveness for the murders and thieves, but the middle class Pharisees he pronounces judgment on (Wilson) and he chases the money lenders from the temple. Those who have the outward appearance of goodness often under go the most horrifying violence in order to receive God’s grace.
Another disturbing element about the violence in these two stories is the fact that O’Connor uses evil men to bring the grace. We expect nice ministers or even shining angels to bring grace to those in need. Instead O’Connor uses a murderer and a rapist. Although God does use the ministers and the angel, we must never underestimate his use of the darkness. He does this continually throughout the Bible. Whether it be a terrible flood in Noah’s case, a command to execute his own son in Abraham’s case, or a deep pit in Joseph’s case, God has been bringing grace through the dark things in this world (Wilson).
Not that this grace by violence is an easy thing to endure. The grandmother was killed and Tarwater went through a great amount of anguish. “Grace cuts. It hurts; it slices; it makes us bleed” (Wilson) Not that the entire Christian faith is about this horrible violence, but it is that aspect that O’Connor chose to explore in her writing. There are many blessings of the cross, but O’Connor explores the suffering of what it means to follow Christ and take up our own cross (Shloss 100).
The violence and grace in O’Connor’s stories is especially horrifying since it is the vulnerable who are violated and killed, and it is those who victimize the vulnerable that bring about God’s grace.
capstone: draft
The social penetration theory and the social information processing theory can enlighten and clarify the communication that takes place or has taken place between William and I as our friendship has developed over the internet. I have always been skeptical of making online friends and even with the numbers of internet friendships increasing in the age of information, I never felt left out. Nevertheless, I am part of this growing trend among young people. I met William, on a non-Christian forum. A high school friend literally forced me to join the website and so I was relatively new to it. While browsing the forums on the site, I was looking for Christians and people with similar music tastes. Then I saw a post by a website member talking about the Christian band, Showbread, one of my favourite bands at the time and I decided to message him. I never knew that a strong friendship was going to form with one click of the “send” button on a lame website.
By using the social penetration theory, I can explain the formation of my friendship with William, 19, from Arkansas. At first, our friendship started with the exchange of our favourite songs by the band Showbread. The onion model of the social penetration theory can give details about the development of our friendship. We started out by sharing little, superficial things about ourselves. We shared similar music and movie tastes. The breadth of our relationship was wide even at the beginning; we always had much to talk about. Eventually, our level of communication went deeper. We started to talk more about religion, hopes, dreams, values and ourselves. Sometimes we even talked about our love for God. The more we talked, the more we shared about ourselves. “Disclosures are often risky” (Trenholm & Jenson, 2000), and a lot of the time there are great risks involved in self-disclosing information. “Once you disclose something to someone, that person can now share the information with others…” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002); therefore, it takes a lot of courage to trust someone at that level. When I was a victim of bullying in high school, I would come home and talk to William. I looked forward to it as well. It was easy to trust him because he did not live near me and he did not know my friends. The risks were minimal in sharing with him and it was easy for me to open up and talk to him about my social issues at school. I trusted him and saw him as a safe person.
Generally, “when people share information about themselves, they expect the other person to share similar information her- or himself” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002) and this rule was maintained throughout our friendship. I was not going to put any time into an online friendship if this other person was not going to reciprocate and find information about me. A “line of communication…is one of the best ways to preserve the relationship” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002) and as long as we had things to talk about (breadth), that line would remain open. Both of these factors nurtured our friendship and gave it time to grow. Now, we have no problem talking to each other about life and we often pray for each other, talk about God, and offer encouragement. There was a lot of risk involved in getting to that place of friendship. I was willing to share information about myself with someone I had never seen before. However, what made it safe for me was that “…another aspect about Internet relationships is that a person can simply disappear…” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). That certainty ensured my way out of the online “friendship” if I needed it. Being doubtful, I assumed that this online friendsip would not last. However, because of the depth and breadth that our friendship was able to form, I consider William to be one of my best friends to this day.
The social information processing theory analysis of the development of my online friendship with William can explain the foundation of our friendship quite clearly. My face-to-face friendships have always developed at a slow pace, with many hesitations. However, my friendship with William formed through computer-mediated communication, or CMC. We only instant messaged each other after school and I would look forward to talking to him. The anticipated future interaction explains that the “likelihood of future interaction motivates CMC users to develop a relationship” (Griffin, 2009 p 143). Due to a time delay in responses, “…there is less information to process” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). Typing allowed me to premeditate on how I was going to respond and how much information I was going to disclose. This gave a sense of stability and routine to our friendship and it helped our relationship form at a steady pace, rather than too fast or too slow. Personally, I do not think that we would have the same friendship that we have today if we had met face-to-face in the first place.
When sharing information I definitely used selective self-presentation (Griffin, 2009 p. 144-45 ) to create a positive aura of myself At first I would only tell William my likes and dislikes in music. I held back information and presented that which was favourable and gave me a likeable impression. Selective self-presentation gives people a chance to “…write about their most attractive traits, accomplishments, thoughts, and actions without fear of contradiction from their physical appearance, their inconsistent actions, or the objection of third parties who know their dark side” (Griffin, 2009 p 144). In a sense, I realized this and I knew that I could not be judged based on my looks, my vices or bad habits, or even my negative feelings. I created a likeable, friendly, and interesting persona; I was an individual making a friend with her best foot forward. This was helpful in maintaining and developing my friendship because “self-disclosing inappropriate information or self-disclosing at the wrong time can inhibit relationship development” (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, Sudweeks, & Stewart, 1995). Of course, as time went on, we shared the negative aspects and happenings in our lives as well in attempt to help each other out in whatever situation with which we were struggling.
An idea called hyperpersonal perspective (Griffin, 2009 p. 144 ) also played a role in the construction of my ever-advancing friendship. For the longest time, I did not know what William looked like and he did not know what I looked like. Moreover, neither of us asked the other about it. The hyperpersonal perspective rests on the fact that the visual representation of each person is absent and, therefore, the perspective relies heavily on self-disclosed information. The interpersonal interaction between online friends can be amplified if only the participants “…resist the temptation or pressure to exchange photographs with each other” (Griffin, 2009 p. 145). It was not until a few months into our friendship when we exchanged pictures. By then, our friendship was very strong. I have not met my friend face-to-face yet; however, there is pressure to keep up with my persona even though he knows more of my real, imperfect self. This pressure also transfers into my face-to-face relationships and acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Often, people do not understand my friendship with William. However, since research has shown that “…online relationships vary considerably, much like other relationships” (Wallace, 1999), I consider my friendship to be lasting and genuine. Because “…CMC allows you to meet two interpersonal goals: to make contact with strangers and thus initiate and develop new relationships; and to maintain existing ones” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). Sometimes; however, I thought our friendship was too perfect far too soon. Early on, I was over attributing similarities between us. These similarities (or over assumption of similarities), however, only created a sense of connectedness and belonging for both of us. Thus, my friendship is built on the fact that we have both shared information (similarities and differences alike) with each other in a nonthreatening and stress free environment.
According to the social information processing theory, my friendship with William grew from pieces of information that he had chosen to share with me. By doing so, he helped me form an opinion of him. As a rule unique to CMC, “the kind of information you provide and acquire through CMC has a direct impact on impression formation and relational attraction” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). The sip versus gulp analogy is true in my friendship with William. I was able to take little pieces from his life and dwell on each piece, rather than having to process body language, eye contact, facial expressions, tone of voice, etc. which face-to-face friendships encounter. My friendship has “the same quantity and quality of interpersonal knowledge, but it accumulate[d] at a slower rate” (Griffin, 2009 p. 140). It has taken many years for our friendship to build up to what it is now. In comparison with other face-to-face relationships, this friendship, in particular, took me much longer to establish us as more than mere acquaintances, but rather as friends.
The resourceful and descriptive theories of social penetration and social information processing, help explain the communication that has occurred during the development and establishment of my friendship with my friend William. The social penetration theory described the interpersonal communication that was taking place through computer-mediated communication. We were able to share deeper ideas and events in our life as well as our own struggles as young Christians in a large world. The social information processing theory, along with computer-mediated communication, accounts for the reasons behind the ease of becoming instant messaging friends. The issue of time and the lack of physical presence, contributed to the building up of our friendship rather than hindering it. I was cynical then and I am still cynical about making friends with strangers online. I never go on the website anymore, I do not regret logging on that one day and making a lifelong friendship with an irreplaceable individual.
Works Cited
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Redmond, M. V. (2002). Interpersonal Communication:
Relating to Others. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Griffin, E. (2009). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey, S., Sudweeks, S., & Stewart, L. P. (1995). Building
Bridges: Interpersonal Skills for a Changing World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Trenholm, S., & Jenson, A. (2000). Interpersonal Communication. California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Wallace, P. (1999). The Psychology of the Internet. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
By using the social penetration theory, I can explain the formation of my friendship with William, 19, from Arkansas. At first, our friendship started with the exchange of our favourite songs by the band Showbread. The onion model of the social penetration theory can give details about the development of our friendship. We started out by sharing little, superficial things about ourselves. We shared similar music and movie tastes. The breadth of our relationship was wide even at the beginning; we always had much to talk about. Eventually, our level of communication went deeper. We started to talk more about religion, hopes, dreams, values and ourselves. Sometimes we even talked about our love for God. The more we talked, the more we shared about ourselves. “Disclosures are often risky” (Trenholm & Jenson, 2000), and a lot of the time there are great risks involved in self-disclosing information. “Once you disclose something to someone, that person can now share the information with others…” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002); therefore, it takes a lot of courage to trust someone at that level. When I was a victim of bullying in high school, I would come home and talk to William. I looked forward to it as well. It was easy to trust him because he did not live near me and he did not know my friends. The risks were minimal in sharing with him and it was easy for me to open up and talk to him about my social issues at school. I trusted him and saw him as a safe person.
Generally, “when people share information about themselves, they expect the other person to share similar information her- or himself” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002) and this rule was maintained throughout our friendship. I was not going to put any time into an online friendship if this other person was not going to reciprocate and find information about me. A “line of communication…is one of the best ways to preserve the relationship” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002) and as long as we had things to talk about (breadth), that line would remain open. Both of these factors nurtured our friendship and gave it time to grow. Now, we have no problem talking to each other about life and we often pray for each other, talk about God, and offer encouragement. There was a lot of risk involved in getting to that place of friendship. I was willing to share information about myself with someone I had never seen before. However, what made it safe for me was that “…another aspect about Internet relationships is that a person can simply disappear…” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). That certainty ensured my way out of the online “friendship” if I needed it. Being doubtful, I assumed that this online friendsip would not last. However, because of the depth and breadth that our friendship was able to form, I consider William to be one of my best friends to this day.
The social information processing theory analysis of the development of my online friendship with William can explain the foundation of our friendship quite clearly. My face-to-face friendships have always developed at a slow pace, with many hesitations. However, my friendship with William formed through computer-mediated communication, or CMC. We only instant messaged each other after school and I would look forward to talking to him. The anticipated future interaction explains that the “likelihood of future interaction motivates CMC users to develop a relationship” (Griffin, 2009 p 143). Due to a time delay in responses, “…there is less information to process” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). Typing allowed me to premeditate on how I was going to respond and how much information I was going to disclose. This gave a sense of stability and routine to our friendship and it helped our relationship form at a steady pace, rather than too fast or too slow. Personally, I do not think that we would have the same friendship that we have today if we had met face-to-face in the first place.
When sharing information I definitely used selective self-presentation (Griffin, 2009 p. 144-45 ) to create a positive aura of myself At first I would only tell William my likes and dislikes in music. I held back information and presented that which was favourable and gave me a likeable impression. Selective self-presentation gives people a chance to “…write about their most attractive traits, accomplishments, thoughts, and actions without fear of contradiction from their physical appearance, their inconsistent actions, or the objection of third parties who know their dark side” (Griffin, 2009 p 144). In a sense, I realized this and I knew that I could not be judged based on my looks, my vices or bad habits, or even my negative feelings. I created a likeable, friendly, and interesting persona; I was an individual making a friend with her best foot forward. This was helpful in maintaining and developing my friendship because “self-disclosing inappropriate information or self-disclosing at the wrong time can inhibit relationship development” (Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, Sudweeks, & Stewart, 1995). Of course, as time went on, we shared the negative aspects and happenings in our lives as well in attempt to help each other out in whatever situation with which we were struggling.
An idea called hyperpersonal perspective (Griffin, 2009 p. 144 ) also played a role in the construction of my ever-advancing friendship. For the longest time, I did not know what William looked like and he did not know what I looked like. Moreover, neither of us asked the other about it. The hyperpersonal perspective rests on the fact that the visual representation of each person is absent and, therefore, the perspective relies heavily on self-disclosed information. The interpersonal interaction between online friends can be amplified if only the participants “…resist the temptation or pressure to exchange photographs with each other” (Griffin, 2009 p. 145). It was not until a few months into our friendship when we exchanged pictures. By then, our friendship was very strong. I have not met my friend face-to-face yet; however, there is pressure to keep up with my persona even though he knows more of my real, imperfect self. This pressure also transfers into my face-to-face relationships and acts as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Often, people do not understand my friendship with William. However, since research has shown that “…online relationships vary considerably, much like other relationships” (Wallace, 1999), I consider my friendship to be lasting and genuine. Because “…CMC allows you to meet two interpersonal goals: to make contact with strangers and thus initiate and develop new relationships; and to maintain existing ones” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). Sometimes; however, I thought our friendship was too perfect far too soon. Early on, I was over attributing similarities between us. These similarities (or over assumption of similarities), however, only created a sense of connectedness and belonging for both of us. Thus, my friendship is built on the fact that we have both shared information (similarities and differences alike) with each other in a nonthreatening and stress free environment.
According to the social information processing theory, my friendship with William grew from pieces of information that he had chosen to share with me. By doing so, he helped me form an opinion of him. As a rule unique to CMC, “the kind of information you provide and acquire through CMC has a direct impact on impression formation and relational attraction” (Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 2002). The sip versus gulp analogy is true in my friendship with William. I was able to take little pieces from his life and dwell on each piece, rather than having to process body language, eye contact, facial expressions, tone of voice, etc. which face-to-face friendships encounter. My friendship has “the same quantity and quality of interpersonal knowledge, but it accumulate[d] at a slower rate” (Griffin, 2009 p. 140). It has taken many years for our friendship to build up to what it is now. In comparison with other face-to-face relationships, this friendship, in particular, took me much longer to establish us as more than mere acquaintances, but rather as friends.
The resourceful and descriptive theories of social penetration and social information processing, help explain the communication that has occurred during the development and establishment of my friendship with my friend William. The social penetration theory described the interpersonal communication that was taking place through computer-mediated communication. We were able to share deeper ideas and events in our life as well as our own struggles as young Christians in a large world. The social information processing theory, along with computer-mediated communication, accounts for the reasons behind the ease of becoming instant messaging friends. The issue of time and the lack of physical presence, contributed to the building up of our friendship rather than hindering it. I was cynical then and I am still cynical about making friends with strangers online. I never go on the website anymore, I do not regret logging on that one day and making a lifelong friendship with an irreplaceable individual.
Works Cited
Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Redmond, M. V. (2002). Interpersonal Communication:
Relating to Others. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Griffin, E. (2009). A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey, S., Sudweeks, S., & Stewart, L. P. (1995). Building
Bridges: Interpersonal Skills for a Changing World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Trenholm, S., & Jenson, A. (2000). Interpersonal Communication. California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Wallace, P. (1999). The Psychology of the Internet. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Predictor of Life Happiness
Mary and Theresa are both distinguished reporters who work in the same work environment and have similar responsibilities. While Mary loves writing articles and feeling fulfilled with her work, Theresa suffers from the stress of deadlines and longing for retirement. Because they receive happiness at work differently, Mary and Theresa have very different views of their life satisfaction. From a psychological perspective, despite the fact that people receive happiness at work differently, happy workers share common determinates such as following interests and having a positive attitude toward challenges. Though work environment might affect happiness temporarily, people’s internal choices create ultimate happiness in both smooth and rough times.
Most people might agree that, in general, certain personalities tend to experience happiness more than others. But rather than depending on innate characteristics and abilities, happiness should be an enduring feeling that can be maintained regardless of our situation. By interviewing different happy people around the world, Forster and Hick in their book How We Choose To Be Happy suggest that we could gain happiness through people’s internal choices (9). Rather than letting external factors decide whether a person will be happy or not, happiness can be something that people can take control of.
People who try to gain happiness by changing their environment, such as the workplace, later find happiness to be transient. Due to changeable conditions in the workplace, it could only create happiness on a temporary basis. Without the intention to be happy, happiness will easily wither once these positive conditions change. Therefore, the workplace is only a single factor in happiness and is always dependent on internal choices.
While organizations try hard to improve their work conditions in order to appeal to employees, there is no single job that could provide happiness to everyone. Each person has his or her own standard of fulfillment and happiness (Scott). Since everyone has a different personality and different expectations for their career, each individual must find his or her own way to receive happiness at work. One might feel happiness at work because it provides a high income; others might feel satisfied at work for the status. Some people may find responsibility as stress while others see responsibility as a form of self-achievement (Cranny, Smith and Stone 150). Depending on the priorities people have for work, satisfaction might be found in different ways for different individuals. With dissimilar expectations, Mary and Theresa feel extremely different under the same conditions. Although individual differences make people receive happiness differently, happy workers share several characteristics.
The secret that makes people like Mary feel fulfilled at work is following their passion. Each person has his or her own interests that excite and motivate them. Despite people’s different approaches to work, working at a passion makes the job itself enjoyable and therefore results in happiness. In Henderson’s research, the majority of the interviewees who receive happiness at work have followed their interests and enjoy what they are doing (Henderson 305). Despite each interviewer’s different preferences and focuses, following their interests has enabled them to fully engage in their work. By enjoying their jobs, workers are more likely to have a positive attitude when facing unexpected changes. Consider Lena, a teacher who was diagnosed with a rare bone disease. With the passion she had for her work, Lena did not complain about her physical illness and decided to continue teaching. “The pain is a reality that I have to deal with during every waking hour. It can be horrible. But I know that it would be worse if I give up what I love and spend all my time nursing myself” (Foster and Hicks 102). A passionate worker like Lena does not give up happiness during rough times, but instead finds happiness in the job she loves.
People are yearning for stable and secure environments and yet always fail to find it in reality (Forster and Hicks 98). Life is full of challenges and changes, and having a career is no exception. Even passionate workers face difficulties. But unlike people who work for money or other external reasons, passionate workers acknowledge the problems and have a positive attitude when challenges come. After researching and interviewing several happy workers, Henderson asserts, “What is most illustrative is the participants’ refusal to remain unhappy” (8). Their reaction towards challenges makes the difference. Happy workers understand well that no matter how well they plan, unexpected changes occur in every career.
Because unpredictable changes always happen, external factors would not be able to maintain happiness. Several studies from different scholars have shown that people with positive attitudes are more likely to cope well with changes (Judge, Erez and Bono 167). The common attributes among happy workers are that they accept the unstable reality and do what they can to make their situation better. One Chinese proverb says, “If the mountain would not move, build a road around it; if the road would not turn, change your path.” In times when we cannot change reality, we can still change our minds. Happiness comes from inside and lasts in both smooth and rough times. Sally is a woman who faced a layoff crisis in her mid-fifties. Instead of letting fear take over her life, she decided to view this crisis as an opportunity of new exploration. By having a positive attitude, Sally enjoyed in her exploration and it improved her performance during this tough time. Sally eventually survived the layoff and got a better position in her organization (Foster and Hicks 116).
When trying to define the best workplace, we often tend to focus on external circumstances. “Fat salary, less responsibility, and no commute” is an old Chinese saying that describes most people’s ideal workplace. But does high salary really bring job satisfaction? Many people do not feel happy at work due to false expectations of what money can bring. Living in a consumer-oriented world, the media proclaim that the more people buy, the happier they will be. Misled by media’s false impressions, people start to work overtime or work in a job they do not enjoy in order to have a higher income and to maintain an idealized lifestyle. Antonides shows a different point of view concerning this common thought about how financial situations will affect people’s happiness. He argues that “happiness in a wider sense was not significantly affected by the level of income.” Even when one’s income declines, happiness is not likely to follow the decline (Antonides 467-484). It is clear that increasing one’s income cannot buy happiness.
Not only will it not bring happiness, but trying to increase income creates a busy lifestyle, drawing people further from happiness. Created by the want of financial securities, a busy lifestyle becomes a happiness killer. Barbara and Paul lived the Hollywood life where money was never an issue, and yet they were not happy. In order to maintain their lifestyle, Paul was always working and under tremendous pressure. By deciding to give up such luxurious lives and follow their dreams, Barbara and Paul finally received happiness. Barbara said, “I’ll never be sucked back into that world again. I’m going to do the things that make me happy; and I’m going to turn down offers that won’t make me happy” (Foster and Hicks 95). Having the right notion of pursuing happiness is crucial. More and more people like Barbara have abandoned the idea of pursuing money only and draw more attention to their internal needs. A report from The Boston Globe points out, “In the past five years, 48 percent of Americans have voluntarily opted to make less money so they could have more time and a less stressful life” (Gerencher). The earlier we realize happiness come from inside of us, the earlier we can break away from the false hope of money.
While we discuss the significance of how inward attitudes affect our perception of happiness at work, some environmental conditions may make people perceive happiness more easily. According to a Canadian Business report, the best workplace gives employees a sense of trust. With trusting relationships between managers and workers, employees in return would spontaneously give full commitment to their job (Wahl). In other words, people feel fulfilled by receiving trust from others, and the happiness they receive motivates them to perform well. Working under certain conditions may create positive affects on workers’ happiness and performance. In his research, Cranny suggests that rewards, high job involvement, and clear, challenging goals create both job satisfaction and high performance (214). In other words, some conditions help people receive happiness more easily than others. On the other hand, no studies indicate that positive conditions maintain happiness in the long run.
Despite the clear connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction, it is, however, not decisive. Because environmental conditions are highly capricious, once the conditions change, the positive connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction break. Bruno and Alois in their book Happiness and Economics argue that insecurity occurs during economic crisis and creates unhappiness among workers (37). People whose happiness depend on their income may suffer greatly during times of economic downturn. Bewley suggests that pay cuts create dissatisfaction at work and negatively affect people’s well-being (Bewley 35). It is clear that relying on environmental conditions for happiness at work can be dangerous. Rather than intending to be happy, people become passive and let environmental factors determine their happiness. As we are looking for enduring determinants which enable us to feel happy, environmental conditions alone are not enough.
Because people spend most of their time working, satisfaction at work greatly affects overall happiness. Receiving happiness at work would also mean receiving happiness in most of our daily lives. Because our careers have occupy a large part of our lifetime, job satisfaction is therefore a good predictor for life satisfaction (Bryner). In recent years, scholars from different fields have gradually agreed that the relationship between the two is too complex to explain (Rode 40). One thing we can be sure of is that the most crucial element for happiness comes from internal factors rather than work conditions.
Mary faces challenges and difficulties in her career life just like everyone else. One thing that allows her to remain happy is her choice to be positive and to find joy in the job she loves. Regardless of the wide rage of working conditions and numerous changes happening throughout career life, people’s internal choice could make happiness present in both wonderful and tragic moments in life.
Most people might agree that, in general, certain personalities tend to experience happiness more than others. But rather than depending on innate characteristics and abilities, happiness should be an enduring feeling that can be maintained regardless of our situation. By interviewing different happy people around the world, Forster and Hick in their book How We Choose To Be Happy suggest that we could gain happiness through people’s internal choices (9). Rather than letting external factors decide whether a person will be happy or not, happiness can be something that people can take control of.
People who try to gain happiness by changing their environment, such as the workplace, later find happiness to be transient. Due to changeable conditions in the workplace, it could only create happiness on a temporary basis. Without the intention to be happy, happiness will easily wither once these positive conditions change. Therefore, the workplace is only a single factor in happiness and is always dependent on internal choices.
While organizations try hard to improve their work conditions in order to appeal to employees, there is no single job that could provide happiness to everyone. Each person has his or her own standard of fulfillment and happiness (Scott). Since everyone has a different personality and different expectations for their career, each individual must find his or her own way to receive happiness at work. One might feel happiness at work because it provides a high income; others might feel satisfied at work for the status. Some people may find responsibility as stress while others see responsibility as a form of self-achievement (Cranny, Smith and Stone 150). Depending on the priorities people have for work, satisfaction might be found in different ways for different individuals. With dissimilar expectations, Mary and Theresa feel extremely different under the same conditions. Although individual differences make people receive happiness differently, happy workers share several characteristics.
The secret that makes people like Mary feel fulfilled at work is following their passion. Each person has his or her own interests that excite and motivate them. Despite people’s different approaches to work, working at a passion makes the job itself enjoyable and therefore results in happiness. In Henderson’s research, the majority of the interviewees who receive happiness at work have followed their interests and enjoy what they are doing (Henderson 305). Despite each interviewer’s different preferences and focuses, following their interests has enabled them to fully engage in their work. By enjoying their jobs, workers are more likely to have a positive attitude when facing unexpected changes. Consider Lena, a teacher who was diagnosed with a rare bone disease. With the passion she had for her work, Lena did not complain about her physical illness and decided to continue teaching. “The pain is a reality that I have to deal with during every waking hour. It can be horrible. But I know that it would be worse if I give up what I love and spend all my time nursing myself” (Foster and Hicks 102). A passionate worker like Lena does not give up happiness during rough times, but instead finds happiness in the job she loves.
People are yearning for stable and secure environments and yet always fail to find it in reality (Forster and Hicks 98). Life is full of challenges and changes, and having a career is no exception. Even passionate workers face difficulties. But unlike people who work for money or other external reasons, passionate workers acknowledge the problems and have a positive attitude when challenges come. After researching and interviewing several happy workers, Henderson asserts, “What is most illustrative is the participants’ refusal to remain unhappy” (8). Their reaction towards challenges makes the difference. Happy workers understand well that no matter how well they plan, unexpected changes occur in every career.
Because unpredictable changes always happen, external factors would not be able to maintain happiness. Several studies from different scholars have shown that people with positive attitudes are more likely to cope well with changes (Judge, Erez and Bono 167). The common attributes among happy workers are that they accept the unstable reality and do what they can to make their situation better. One Chinese proverb says, “If the mountain would not move, build a road around it; if the road would not turn, change your path.” In times when we cannot change reality, we can still change our minds. Happiness comes from inside and lasts in both smooth and rough times. Sally is a woman who faced a layoff crisis in her mid-fifties. Instead of letting fear take over her life, she decided to view this crisis as an opportunity of new exploration. By having a positive attitude, Sally enjoyed in her exploration and it improved her performance during this tough time. Sally eventually survived the layoff and got a better position in her organization (Foster and Hicks 116).
When trying to define the best workplace, we often tend to focus on external circumstances. “Fat salary, less responsibility, and no commute” is an old Chinese saying that describes most people’s ideal workplace. But does high salary really bring job satisfaction? Many people do not feel happy at work due to false expectations of what money can bring. Living in a consumer-oriented world, the media proclaim that the more people buy, the happier they will be. Misled by media’s false impressions, people start to work overtime or work in a job they do not enjoy in order to have a higher income and to maintain an idealized lifestyle. Antonides shows a different point of view concerning this common thought about how financial situations will affect people’s happiness. He argues that “happiness in a wider sense was not significantly affected by the level of income.” Even when one’s income declines, happiness is not likely to follow the decline (Antonides 467-484). It is clear that increasing one’s income cannot buy happiness.
Not only will it not bring happiness, but trying to increase income creates a busy lifestyle, drawing people further from happiness. Created by the want of financial securities, a busy lifestyle becomes a happiness killer. Barbara and Paul lived the Hollywood life where money was never an issue, and yet they were not happy. In order to maintain their lifestyle, Paul was always working and under tremendous pressure. By deciding to give up such luxurious lives and follow their dreams, Barbara and Paul finally received happiness. Barbara said, “I’ll never be sucked back into that world again. I’m going to do the things that make me happy; and I’m going to turn down offers that won’t make me happy” (Foster and Hicks 95). Having the right notion of pursuing happiness is crucial. More and more people like Barbara have abandoned the idea of pursuing money only and draw more attention to their internal needs. A report from The Boston Globe points out, “In the past five years, 48 percent of Americans have voluntarily opted to make less money so they could have more time and a less stressful life” (Gerencher). The earlier we realize happiness come from inside of us, the earlier we can break away from the false hope of money.
While we discuss the significance of how inward attitudes affect our perception of happiness at work, some environmental conditions may make people perceive happiness more easily. According to a Canadian Business report, the best workplace gives employees a sense of trust. With trusting relationships between managers and workers, employees in return would spontaneously give full commitment to their job (Wahl). In other words, people feel fulfilled by receiving trust from others, and the happiness they receive motivates them to perform well. Working under certain conditions may create positive affects on workers’ happiness and performance. In his research, Cranny suggests that rewards, high job involvement, and clear, challenging goals create both job satisfaction and high performance (214). In other words, some conditions help people receive happiness more easily than others. On the other hand, no studies indicate that positive conditions maintain happiness in the long run.
Despite the clear connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction, it is, however, not decisive. Because environmental conditions are highly capricious, once the conditions change, the positive connection between environmental conditions and job satisfaction break. Bruno and Alois in their book Happiness and Economics argue that insecurity occurs during economic crisis and creates unhappiness among workers (37). People whose happiness depend on their income may suffer greatly during times of economic downturn. Bewley suggests that pay cuts create dissatisfaction at work and negatively affect people’s well-being (Bewley 35). It is clear that relying on environmental conditions for happiness at work can be dangerous. Rather than intending to be happy, people become passive and let environmental factors determine their happiness. As we are looking for enduring determinants which enable us to feel happy, environmental conditions alone are not enough.
Because people spend most of their time working, satisfaction at work greatly affects overall happiness. Receiving happiness at work would also mean receiving happiness in most of our daily lives. Because our careers have occupy a large part of our lifetime, job satisfaction is therefore a good predictor for life satisfaction (Bryner). In recent years, scholars from different fields have gradually agreed that the relationship between the two is too complex to explain (Rode 40). One thing we can be sure of is that the most crucial element for happiness comes from internal factors rather than work conditions.
Mary faces challenges and difficulties in her career life just like everyone else. One thing that allows her to remain happy is her choice to be positive and to find joy in the job she loves. Regardless of the wide rage of working conditions and numerous changes happening throughout career life, people’s internal choice could make happiness present in both wonderful and tragic moments in life.
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